FARM  HORTICULTURE 

PREPARED  ESPECIALLY  FOR 

THOSE  INTERESTED  IN  EITHER  HOME 
OR  COMMERCIAL  HORTICULTURE 


BY 

GEORGE  W.  HOOD,  M.Sc. 

ASSOCIATE   PROFESSOR  OF  HORTICULTURE    IN   THE    UNIVERSITY   OF  NEBRASKA 

SECOND  EDITION,  THOROUGHLY  REVISED 

HUustratcD  witb  144  Engraving 


LEA  &  FEBIGER 

PHILADELPHIA   AND   NEW   YORK 
1921 


COPYRIGHT 

LEA  &  FEBIGER 

1921 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THAT  "Farm  Horticulture"  has  met  the  need  for  which 
it  was  created,  is  shown  by  the  popularity  which  it  has 
enjoyed  and  which  has  exhausted  the  first  edition  in  little 
over  a  year  from  the  date  of  original  publication.  It  is 
especially  gratifying  to  the  author  that  this  demand  has 
come  largely  from  agricultural  high  schools  and  colleges,  as 
it  is  an  indication  of  the  permanent  worth  of  the  book  and 
its  establishment  in  the  educational  system  of  the  country. 
Such  revision  has  been  made  as  was  necessary  after  so  short 
a  lapse  of  time,  and  new  material  has  been  incorporated 
wherever  it  seemed  possible  to  add  to  the  value  of  the  work 
or  increase  its  utility.  A  few  chapters  did  not  treat  their 
respective  subjects  as  fully  as  they  merited  and  these  chapters 
have  been  lengthened  so  as  to  make  them  better  serve  their 
purpose.  Some  rearrangement  of  the  subject  matter  has 
also  been  made  so  that  it  should  conform  more  closely  to  the 
usual  method  of  teaching  Horticulture.  In  some  chapters 
additional  material  has  been  included,  where  conditions 
have  changed  and  experience  has  demonstrated  that  the 
subject  was  not  discussed  at  sufficient  length. 

It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  in  preparing  this  work  to 
bring  together  the  most  important  facts  dealing  with  the 
general  principles  underlying  Horticulture.  The  book  is 
primarily  an  elementary  text,  so  arranged  and  developed 
as  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  student  as  well  as  those  who  are 
practicing  Horticulture.  Many  teachers  of  Elementary 
Agriculture  and  Horticulture  have  found  it  suitable  as  a 
text  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  revised  edition  will  better  meet 
their  needs.  It  is  thought  that  the  average  family  inter- 

498236 


IV  PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 

ested  in  Horticulture   can  use  it  as  a  guide  to  grow  their 
plants  successfully. 

The  object  of  the  book  is  to  give  a  brief  discussion  and  to 
supply  information  on  some  of  the  important  subjects  in 
Horticulture.  The  field  is  large  and  only  the  most  important 
phases  of  the  subject  are  considered,  but  it  is  thought  that 
some  information  relative  to  those  practices  which  many 
people  desire  and  which  cannot  be  found  in  any  single  text, 
is  well  worth  the  effort  put  forth  in  this  revised  edition.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  work  treats  the  subject  from  the 
standpoint  of  production  of  Horticultural  products  as  well 
as  the  improvement  of  the  home,  it  has  proved  valuable  to 
those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  the  following,  and  takes  this 
opportunity  to  express  his  appreciation  to  Professors  Mel- 
ville T.  Cook,  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station; 
A.  L.  Quaintance,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture;  Donald 
Reddick,  Cornell  University;  H.  C.  Thompson,  Cornell 
University;  F.  H.  Ballou,  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  and  W.  H.  Wicks,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
for  the  figures  for  which  they  are  credited  in  the  text. 

Acknowledgement  is  also  due  the  R.  M.  Kellogg  Co.,  of 
Three  Rivers,  Michigan,  the  Bateman  Manufacturing  Co., 
and  the  International  Harvester  Company  for  furnishing 
photographs  and  illustrations,  for  which  due  credit  is  given 
under  each  figure. 

The  author  wishes  to  express  his  appreciation  to  Professors 
R.  F.  Howard,  University  of  Nebraska  and  J.  R.  Cooper, 
formerly  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  for  reading  and 
criticising  the  manuscript  and  for  the  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions which  they  offered.  He  also  wishes  to  thank  all  others 
who  contributed  in  any  way  to  the  work  and  to  whom  it  is 
hoped  due  credit  has  been  given  in  every  case. 

G.  W.  H. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 17 

CHAPTER  II. 
THE  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 38 

CHAPTER  III. 
HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME 55 

CHAPTER  IV. 
CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE 67 

CHAPTER  V. 
/ 

PLANT  PROPAGATION 79 

CHAPTER  VI. 
BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING ...       95 

CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 112 


vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 129 

CHAPTER  IX. 
THE  PRUNING  OF  PLANTS 147 

CHAPTER  X. 
HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING .      .     159 

CHAPTER  XI. 
WINTER  PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS 173 

CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  STRAWBERRY   . 182 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
BUSH  FRUITS      .--'.     .     .  •' ...     .     .- 196 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE  BRAMBLES.     ,....; 208 

CHAPTER  XV. 
THE  GRAPE 220 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  POME  FRUITS 237 


CONTENTS  vii 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
THE  STONE  FRUITS 267 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  CITRUS  FRUITS 298 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 317 

APPENDIX  332 


FARM  HORTICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  I. 
PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN. 

THERE  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  horticulture,  amateur 
and  commercial.  In  amateur  horticulture  the  primary 
object  is  to  supply  the  home  table  with  vegetables  and  fruits 
and  to  furnish  ornamental  flowers  for  the  decoration  and  the 
beautification  of  the  home  and  grounds  surrounding  the 
home.  An  ample  supply  in  all  divisions  is  essential.  In 
commercial  horticulture,  however,  the  object  is  much 
different.  For  this  field  the  grower  selects  one  phase  of 
horticulture,  and  specializes  in  it,  growing  the  specialty  on  a 
large  scale  to  supply  the  community  in  which  he  lives.  In 
the  commercial  field  the  assortment  might  be  either  large 
or  small  and  consist  of  only  one  vegetable,  fruit  or  orna- 
mental. 

Horticulture  for  the  home  is  exceedingly  important,  and 
by  its  adoption  one  makes  a  good  start  for  a  successful  and 
happy  life 

Laying  Out  the  Garden. — In  order  to  succeed  well  with  any 
undertaking,  one  must  first  have  a  definite  and  a  well- 
formulated  plan  to  follow.  A  plan  is  essential  in  the  home 
garden  as  well  as  in  any  other  line  of  work,  and  a  well-designed 
plan  that  will  be  readily  understood  is  indispensable.  To  draw 
a  garden  plan  the  grower  should  first  secure  a  piece  of  paper, 
which  must  of  necessity  vary  in  size  and  in  shape,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  garden,  and  the  unit  of  measure  which  is 
adopted.  The  plan  should  be  drawn  to  a  definite  scale. 
2 


THE  HOME  GARDEN 


This  scale  is  called  the  unit  of  measure.  The  unit  of  measure 
furnishes  the  proper  proportions  and  represents  the  exact 
number  of  feet  of  ground  the  garden  is  to  occupy  and  the 
distance  between  the  rows  of  plants.  For  example,  the 
drawing  of  the  garden  plan  on  the  paper  must  necessarily 
be  smaller  than  the  garden,  and  therefore  we  must  have  what 
is  known  as  the  reducing  unit,  or  scale.  If  the  scale  in  which 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  equals  one  foot  is  used,  then  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  on  the  paper  will  represent  one  foot  on  the  ground. 
If  the  garden  is  twenty  by  thirty  feet,  then  to  reduce  it  to 
the  scale  in  which  one-fourth  of  an  inch  equals  one  foot  the 
size  of  the  paper  would  have  to  be  six  by  eight  inches.  If  the 
garden  is  one  hundred  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  the 
paper  must  be  twenty-five  by  thirty-eight  inches.  The  sizes 
indicated  are  the  exact  sizes  the  paper  must  be  to  draw 
the  garden,  but  in  all  plans  a  larger  size  should  always  be 
secured  to  allow  for  an  inch  or  two  of  margin.  If  the  garden 
space  is  large,  one-eighth-inch  scale  can  be  used,  which 
means  that  for  every  one-eighth  of  an  inch  on  the  paper 
there  must  be  one  foot  on  the  ground.  By  making  use  of 
the  unit  of  measure  the  rows  of  vegetables  and  fruits  can  be 
located  in  their  proper  places.  In  using  the  reducing  scale 
the  grower  must  always  remember  that  for  each  linear 
foot  in  the  garden,  he  must  use  one  unit  of  measure,  say  one- 
fourth  inch  or  one-eighth  inch  on  the  paper. 

Location  of  the  Garden.  —  In  selecting  the  site  for  the  garden, 
several  important  points  should  be  considered:  (1)  The 
garden  should  be  located  conveniently  close  to  the  kitchen, 
and  since  it  is  considered  as  a  part  of  the  kitchen  equipment, 
it  should  necessarily  be  in  close  proximity  to  the  objective 
point.  (2)  The  soil,  when  possible,  should  be  a  sandy  loam, 
but  when  this  is  out  of  the  question  and  it  is  a  heavy  clay, 
it  should  be  improved  by  adding  well-rotted  manure,  sand, 
sifted  cinders,  etc.  (3)  A  gentle  slope  to  the  south  or  south- 
east should  be  selected  when  this  is  possible.  A  sunny 
slope  dries  off  and  warms  up  earlier  in  the  spring  and  makes 
planting  possible  earlier  than  if  the  ground  sloped  to  the 
north.  It  is  also  more  pleasant  to  work  on  a  southern 
exposure.  A  slope  also  gives  the  garden  good  air  drainage, 


SIZE  OF  THE  GARDEN  19 

because  cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air  and  it  settles  to 
the  lower  levels,  therefore  less  danger  is  experienced  from 
frost.  Avoid  too  steep  a  slope,  one  with  a  fall  of  about 
four  or  five  feet  to  the  hundred  is  good.  A  gentle  slope 
provides  good  soil  drainage,  which  is  important,  because 
neither  fruit  nor  vegetables  can  thrive  with  wet  feet.  Hor- 
ticultural crops  which  are  grown  slowly  on  poorly  drained 
land  often  become  very  irregular  and  gnarled  in  shape  and 
poor  in  quality.  Fruit  trees  are  more  liable  to  split  under 
the  strain  of  wind  and  other  agencies  on  a  poor  soil  than  on  a 
well-drained  piece  of  land,and  many  gardens  are  a  disappoint- 
ment to  the  owner,  chiefly  because  they  are  not  well-drained. 
(4)  A  good  supply  of  water  should,  be  available  for  irrigation 
when  it  is  needed.  An  immense  quantity  of  water  is  required 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  and  the  value  of  irrigation 
should  not  be  overlooked.  (5)  Exposed  locations  should 
be  protected  by  wind-breaks.  Every  experienced  fruit  and 
vegetable  grower  is  familiar  with  the  advantages  of  a  wind- 
break. They  are  especially  valuable  in  the  protection  of  the 
cucurbits,  such  as  the  cucumber,  the  squash,  etc.,  and  the 
small  fruits,  such  as  raspberries,  strawberries  and  black- 
berries. Windbreaks  are  of  two  kinds,  natural  and  artificial. 
A  common  practice  is  to  construct  an  artificial  wind-break, 
such  as  a  fence,  which  serves  the  purpose  fairly  well,  although 
natural  wind-breaks,  such  as  hedges  of  conifers,  are  more 
attractive  and  more  economical  when  once  they  are  estab- 
lished. 

Size  of  the  Garden. — The  space  a  garden  occupies  is  largely 
determined  by  the  number  of  individuals  in  the  family.  The 
garden  should  be  the  minimum  size  that  will  produce  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  vegetables  and  fruits  for  home  consumption. 
The  dimensions  of  the  garden  will  also  depend  upon  the  indi- 
vidual preference  for  the  different  kinds  of  vegetables  and 
fruits,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the 
amount  of  land  available,  as  well  as  the  intensiveness  of  the 
methods  which  are  followed.  The  size  will  necessarily  vary 
with  each  family,  and  it  should  be  determined  in  each  case 
by  trial.  Always  plan  to  Use  the  most  intensive  methods 
of  cultivation  because  this  practice  will  make  the  garden 


20  PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 

occupy  the  smallest  possible  space,  as  well  as  to  reduce  the 
factor  of  labor. 

Arrangement  of  the  Plants. — In  determining  the  position 
of  the  vegetables  and  the  fruits  in  the  garden  it  is  advisable 
to  have  the  small  fruits,  such  as  grapes,  raspberries,  black- 
berries, dewberries,  currants,  gooseberries  and  strawberries, 
placed  along  one  side  of  the  garden,  usually  in  the  order 
named,  with  the  grapes  forming  one  border.  The  perennial 
vegetables,  such  as  the  rhubarb  and  the  asparagus,  can  usually 
find  a  place  between  the  gooseberries  and  the  strawberries, 
because  the  land  they  occupy  is  not  plowed  up  each  season. 
It  is  an  advantage  to  place  the  rows  the  same  distance  apart 
when  it  is  possible.  The  small,  short-season  crops,  such  as 
lettuce,  radishes  and  onions,  should  be  grouped  together, 
thus  enabling  the  gardener  to  soon  clear  that  land,  so  that  a 
second  crop  can  be  planted.  The  long-season  crops,  such  as 
the  tomatoes,  cucurbits,  corn  etc.,  which  occupy  the  ground 
for  a  longer  time,  should  be  grouped  in  one  place,  thus  avoid- 
ing the  mixing  up  of  the  early  and  the  late  crops.  Suggestive 
plans  offered  on  the  following  pages  will  aid  in  simplifying 
the  arrangement  and  the  location  of  the  vegetables  and  the 
fruits. 

In  recommending  the  amount  of  seed  to  plant  in  the  garden, 
as  well  as  the  distance  apart  the  plants  should  stand,  only 
suggestive  amounts  of  seeds  and  arbitrary  distances  can  be 
given,  since  local  factors  and  different  conditions  alter  cases. 
It  is  assumed  that  a  large  share  of  the  cultivation  which 
is  given  to  the  farm  garden  will  be  done  with  horse  imple- 
ments. This,  of  course,  necessitates  a  less  intensive  plan. 
In  the  suburban  garden  the  cultivation  will  be  performed 
with  hand  implements,  such  as  the  hand  cultivators,  etc., 
and  the  plants  can  be  grown  closer  together  and  a  more 
intensive  system  of  planting  followed.  The  city  garden 
should  be  the  most  intensive  of  the  three  gardens.  In  the 
city  gardens  practically  all  of  the  work  is  done  by  hand,  with 
such  tools  as  the  hand  hoe,  rake,  trowel,  etc.  The  plants 
are  all  given  more  individual  attention.  Such  plants  as  the 
tomatoes  are  pruned  and  staked,  thus  allowing  a  greater 
number  of  plants  to  a  given  space. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  PLANTS 


21 


TABLE  I. — DISTANCE  TO  PLANT  VEGETABLES. 


Farm  garden. 

Suburban  garden. 

City  garden. 

Distance 
between 
rows, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
plants 
in  row, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
rows, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
plants 
in  row, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
rows, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
plants 
in  row, 
inches. 

Beans  (string) 

24 

4-6 

18 

4-6 

15 

4-6 

Beans  (Lima) 

30 

6-8 

24 

6-8 

Beets    .... 

24 

3 

18 

3 

15 

3 

Cabbage  (early)    . 

24 

16 

24 

16 

24 

16 

Cabbage  (medium) 

24 

24 

24 

24 

Cabbage  (late) 

30 

24 

30 

24 

24 

24 

Carrots 

24 

3 

24 

3 

15 

3 

Cauliflower 

30 

24 

30 

24 

Celery  .... 

48 

6 

48 

6 

Chard  .... 

24 

6 

18 

6 

!5 

6 

Sweet  corn  (early) 

30 

24 

30 

24 

Sweet    corn    (me- 

dium) 

30 

30 

Sweet  corn  (late)  . 

36 

30 

30 

30 

Cucumber 

60 

12 

60 

12 

Egg  plant  . 

30 

24 

24 

24 

Lettuce 

24 

12 

18 

10 

8 

6 

Melon  (musk) 

60 

15 

60 

15 

Melon  (water) 

60 

24 

Onion  seed 

18 

5 

18 

5 

12 

4 

Onion  sets 

18 

3 

18 

3 

12 

3 

Parsley       .      .      . 

24 

6 

24 

6 

18 

6 

Peas      .... 

30 

6 

30 

6 

Peppers 

30 

24 

30 

24 

24 

24 

Potatoes     . 

30 

12 

30 

12 

Radishes    . 

18 

5 

18 

3 

12 

3 

Squash 

60 

24 

60 

24 

Tomatoes  . 

48 

48 

36 

24 

24 

24 

TABLE  II. — DISTANCE  TO  SET  PERENNIAL  PLANTS  AND 
SMALL  FRUITS. 


Farm  garden. 

Suburban  garden. 

City  garden. 

Distance 
between 
rows, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
plants 
in  row, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
rows, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
plants 
in  row, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
rows, 
inches. 

Distance 
between 
plants 
in  row, 
inches. 

Asparagus 

36 

12 

36 

12 

36 

12 

Blackberries    . 

72 

48 

Currants    . 

60 

48 

48 

48 

48 

36 

Gooseberries    . 

60 

48 

48 

48 

48 

36 

Grapes 

120 

96 

96 

96 

Horseradish     . 

24 

12 

24 

12 

Raspberries 

72 

36 

60 

36 

Rhubarb    .      .      . 

36 

24 

24 

24 

24 

24 

Strawberries    . 

36 

12 

36 

12 

24 

12 

22 


PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 


TABLE  III. — THE  AMOUNT   OF   SEED  TO   PLANT  IN   THE 
GARDEN. 


Farm  garden. 

Suburban 
garden. 

City  garden. 

Beans  (string) 

1  quart 

1     pint 

2  pint 

Beans  (Lima)  . 

1  pint 

\  pint 

None 

Beets      
Cabbage  (early)      
Cabbage  (medium)      .      .      . 
Cabbage  (late)  
Carrots 

2  ounces 
1  packet 
1  packet 
1  packet 
1  ounce 

1    ounce 
1    packet 
1    packet 
1    packet 
1    packet 

1    ounce 
12    plants 
None 
12    plants 
1    packet 

Cauliflower 

1  packet 

1    packet 

None 

Celery 

1  ounce 

1    packet 

None 

Chard  . 

1  packet 

1    packet 

1    packet 

Sweet  corn  (early)        .... 
Sweet  corn  (medium) 
Sweet  corn  (late)  
Cucumber   
Egg  plant    
Lettuce 

:   pint 
pint 
pint 
ounce 
packet 
ounce 

\  pint 
None 
\  pint 
1    ounce 
12    plants 
1    packet 

None 
None 
None 
1    packet 
12    plants 
1    packet 

Mustard 

packet 

1    packet 

1    packet 

Muskmelon 

ounce 

1    packet 

None 

Watermelon 

ounce 

None 

None 

Onion  seed  
Onion  sets  .  . 

ounces 
quarts 

1    ounce 
1    quart 

1    packet 
1    pint 

Parsley  
Peas  (early)       
Peas  (medium)        
Peas  (late)  
Peppers        
Potatoes      
Radish  
Rhubarb      
Spinach        ....... 
Squash  (summer)  
Squash  (winter)      
Sweet  potatoes       
Tomatoes    . 

packet 
quart 
quart 
quart 
packet 
bushel 
3  ounces 
36  plants 
1  ounce 
1  ounce 
1  ounce 
250  plants 
200  plants 

1    packet 
1    pint 
1    pint 
1    pint 
24    plants 
\  bushel 
1    ounce 
24    plants 
1    ounce 
1    packet 
1    packet 
None 
50    plants 

12    plants 
None 
None 
None 
6    plants 
None 
1    ounce 
6    plants 
1    packet 
None 
None 
None 
12    plants 

TABLE  IV. — THE  NUMBER  OF  PERENNIAL  PLANTS  AND 
SMALL  FRUITS  TO   SET. 


Farm  garden. 

Suburban 
garden. 

City  garden. 

Asparagus  ... 

100  pla 
50 
25 
15 
20 
12 
50 
25 
400 

nts 

50  pla 
25 
15 
5 
10 
12 
25 
12 
200 

nts 

25  plants 
6       " 
6       " 

6       " 

100       " 

Blackberries 

Currants  
Grapes  
Gooseberries  
Horseradish 

Raspberries  
Rhubarb  
Strawberries  

MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS  23 

Preparation  of  the  Garden  Soil. — Soil  preparation  for  the 
garden  depends  upon  the  nature  and  the  kind  of  soil  with 
which  you  have  to  deal.  The  heavy,  stiff  clay  soils  should 
be  plowed  in  the  fall,  because  the  action  of  the  frost  during 
the  winter  will  break  up  the  soil  into  fine  particles  and  render 
it  more  suitable  for  planting.  The  fall  plowing  also  adds  more 
moisture  to  the  soil.  The  snow  and  rain  which  fall  during 
the  winter  and  the  early  spring  months  lodge  in  the  crevices 
and  rough  furrows  and  gradually  melt  and  soak  into  the 
ground,  thus  saving  a  large  amount  of  moisture  which  other- 
wise would  run  off  and  be  lost. 

Fall  plowing  of  light  sandy  soils  is  not  so  important.  In 
fact  in  windy  sections  of  the  country  it  is  not  advisable  to 
fall  plow  loose  sandy  ground,  because  a  large  part  of  the 
surface  soil  will  be  blown  away.  However,  in  those  sections 
where  winds  do  not  exist  fall  plowing  is  recommended  because 
it  reduces  the  spring  work  and  many  plants  can  be  set 
earlier. 

In  all  cases  where  fall  plowing  is  not  practical  early  spring 
plowing  should  be  the  rule.  Sandy  soils  will  bear  plowing 
much  earlier  than  heavy,  clay  soils,  because  the  loose  soils  dry 
out  faster  than  the  stiff,  compact  types,  as  the  clays. 

Deep  plowing  should  invariably  be  the  rule.  In  fact,  it  is 
a  question  whether  it  is  possible  to  have  too  deep  a  seed-bed, 
especially  if  good  cultural  methods  are  practised.  A  seed- 
bed from  8  to  10  inches  deep  is  satisfactory  and  should  be 
the  aim  of  all  growers  of  garden  produce. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — The  best  fertilizer  that  can  be 
given  to  the  garden  is  barnyard  manure.  This  material 
not  only  adds  plant  food  but  supplies  much  organic  matter 
and  finally  produces  humus.  When  there  is  plenty  of  water 
available,  either  natural  or  artificial,  you  cannot  spread  too 
much  manure  on  your  garden.  A  longer  time  will  be  required 
to  decay  and  make  available  the  plant  food  in  all  manures 
that  have  large  amounts  of  straw  or  litter  present,  and  a 
greater  amount  of  water  will  be  necessary  to  reduce  them. 

Barnyard  manures  should  usually  be  spread  on  the  garden 
during  the  early  fall  and  turned  under  as  soon  as  the  soil  is 
covered.  The  ground  should  be  left  rough  and  not  harrowed 


24  PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 

or  raked.  This  practice  prevents  the  water  from  running 
off  and  aids  in  the  breaking  down  of  the  manures  which 
makes  them  more  available  to  the  plants  the  following 
season.  When  fall  plowing  is  not  practised  the  manure 
should  be  spread  out  evenly  on  the  ground  during  the  autumn 
or  winter  and  then  turned  under  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
the  ground  can  be  plowed. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  valuable  in  certain  sections  of 
the  country  either  to  use  alone  or  in  combination  with  barn- 
yard manures.  When  commercial  fertilizers  are  employed 
alone  some  means  of  adding  humus  or  organic  matter  to  the 
soil  must  be  provided.  Green  manure  crops,  such  as  clover, 
cow  peas,  soy  beans,  rye  and  several  more  are  usually  grown 
and^then  plowed  under  to  add  the  needed  organic  matter. 
As  a  rule  it  requires  some  experience  in  handling  commercial 
fertilizers  to  receive  the  most  good  from  their  use.  When  the 
use  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  considered  a  very  important 
item  to  investigate  is  the  relative  cost  of  the  materials. 
During  the  past  few  years  the  ingredients  which  make  up  a 
complete  commercial  fertilizer,  namely,  nitrogen,  phosphate 
and  potash,  have  been  very  high  and  in  many  cases  they 
have  been  prohibitive.  The  nitrogen  and  potash  are  the 
most  expensive,  although  phosphates  are  relatively  inexpen- 
sive and  in  many  cases  phosphates  can  be  used. 

There  can  be  no  definite  rule  given  as  to  the  amount  of 
commercial  fertilizer  that  should  be  applied.  This  varies 
with  each  crop  and  every  type  of  soil.  The  amount  of  water 
available  also  determines  the  amount  of  fertilizer  that  can 
be  used.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  usually  safe  to  apply 
from  1000  to  2000  pounds  to  the  acre,  providing  plenty  of 
humus  is  present  and  good  cultural  methods  are  practised. 

Succession,  Companion  and  Rotation  Planting. — To  make 
a  garden  yield  the  maximum  quantity  of  vegetables  it  is 
necessary  to  have  the  land  occupied  practically  all  of  the 
time  during  the  growing  season.  This  practice  is  made  pos- 
sible in  vegetable  planting  because  we  have  in  this  group 
short,  medium  and  long  season  plants  as  well  as  cool  weather 
and  warm  weather  plants.  It  therefore  becomes  an  easy 
matter  to  select  certain  plants  and  so  group  and  arrange 


SUCCESSION,  COMPANION  AND  ROTATION  PLANTING  25 

them  so  that  we  can  make  the  ground  grow  some  plants  all 
during  the  season.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  we  practise 
what  is  known  as  succession  and  companion  planting. 

By  succession  planting  we  mean  that  one  crop  follows 
another  on  the  same  ground  and  in  the  same  season,  as,  for 
example,  early  lettuce  or  radishes  followed  by  string  beans. 
The  secret  to  successful  succession  planting  then  is  to  select 
two  or  three  crops  so  that  the  combined  growing  season  of 
all  will  be  equal  to  the  growing  season  of  the  year.  This 
usually  includes  the  selection  of  some  early  cool  weather 
crop  followed  by  some  medium  season  warm  weather 
crop  that  will  mature  before  frost.  In  this  way  we 
grow  two  or  more  crops  from  the  same  ground  and  have 
no  waste  space  in  the  garden  to  become  a  weed  patch  or  an 


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FIG.  1. — Several  crops  which  illustrate  companion  planting. 

eyesore.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  proper 
group  of  plants,  so  that  they  all  have  sufficient  time  to 
mature  their  crop  and  still  have  no  vacant  space  during  the 
growing  season. 

Companion  planting  differs  from  succession  planting  in 
that  two  or  more  crops  occupy  the  same  ground  at  the 
same  time.  This  is  sometimes  called  double  cropping.  The 
secret  to  this  practice  is  close  planting  with  plants  that  will 
grow  easily  together,  so  that  one  kind  is  removed  as  it 
matures  and  before  it  crowds  the  other  plants.  Three  vege- 
tables which  illustrate  this  planting  are  radishes,  lettuce 
and  cabbage.  The  principle  on  which  this  operates  is  the 
selection  of  early  short-season  crops  which  are  planted 
between  the  rows  of  medium  or  long  season  ones.  The  early 
plants  soon  mature  and  are  removed,  and  in  no  way  interrupt 


26  PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 

the  growth  of  the  other  plants.  Oftentimes  certain  plants 
will  grow  as  companion  plants  throughout  the  life  of  both, 
as,  for  example,  pole  beans  and  pumpkins  grown  with  sweet 
corn.  These  plants  adapt  themselves  to  each  other's  company 
and  will  produce  profitable  crops  in  this  way.  A  companion 
crop,  then,  might  be  defined  as  a  plant  which  associates  with 
another  plant  for  a  certain  portion  of  its  life. 

Rotation  of  plants  is  more  or  less  common  and  differs  from 
succession  and  companion  planting  in  that  two  years  are 
required  for  its  operation  while  only  one  season  is  necessary 
for  the  other  two  systems.  When  we  rotate  a  crop  we  mean 
that  we  follow  one  crop  with  another  different  one  the 
following  season. 

Vegetables  Grown  for  Their  Roots. — The  root  crops  include 
some  of  our  most  important  vegetables.  These  plants  are 
grown  for  their  underground  parts.  In  most  cases  it  is  the 
developed  root  of  the  plant,  although  in  the  case  of  the  Irish 
potato  it  is  the  enlarged  stem. 

The  conditions  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  root  crops 
are  similar,  and  while  there  are  special  requirements  for 
certain  ones  a  few  general  conditions  are  common  to  all. 
In  the  first  place,  all  root  crops  do  the  best  when  they  are 
grown  on  a  light  sandy  soil.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
edible  part,  being  a  root,  must  enlarge  sufficiently  to  produce 
food.  Since  the  soil  offers  resistance  to  the  growth  of  an 
enlarged  root  it  is  always  advisable  to  select  those  soils 
which  offer  the  least  resistance  to  the  rapid  expansion  of  the 
underground  part. 

A  deep,  well-pulverized  seed-bed  is  also  necessary  for  all 
underground  crops.  This  allows  the  parts  to  enlarge  with 
the  least  resistance.  In  such  plants  as  the  parsnip,  carrot 
and  salsify,  that  develop  long  roots,  it  is  especially  desirable 
that  the  seed-bed  be  deep  because  knotty,  crooked  roots  will 
develop  if  the  root  strikes  a  hard  pan  that  hinders  its  down- 
ward growth.  Another  detrimental  factor  that  is  often  found 
on  such  plants  where  growth  is  restricted  by  heavy  soils  is 
the  development  of  many  small  fibrous  roots  over  the  surface 
of  the  large  root.  This  makes  the  product  unsightly,  of 
inferior  quality  and  reduces  its  value. 


VEGETABLES  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  FRUIT  AND  SEED      27 

Practically  all  of  the  root  crops,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  sweet  potato,  do  the  best  in  a  cool  moist  climate. 
Therefore,  to  grow  the  best  root  crops  they  should  be  either 
planted  in  sections  of  the  country  that  have  these  conditions 
or  during  the  seasons  that  have  a  suitable  climate.  As  a 
rule,  then,  these  crops  are  grown  as  early  spring  or  fall  crops, 
thus  making  use  of  the  climate  that  best  suits  their  develop- 
ment. 

Vegetables  Grown  for  Their  Foliage. — This  class  of  vegetables 
consists  of  such  plants  as  the  lettuce,  spinach,  cabbage, 
brussels  sprouts,  kale  and  many  more.  The  edible  parts  of 
this  class  consists  principally  of  the  leaves  and  stems.  The 
requirements  for  this  group  are  somewhat  varied.  A  few 
general  conditions  are  common  to  all.  The  best  quality  is 
invariably  produced  when  these  plants  are  grown  rapidly 
and  liberally  supplied  with  moisture.  Plenty  of  water, 
together  with  sufficient  plant  food,  causes  rapid  development, 
which  produces  brittle,  crisp  leaves.  Slow  growth  and  lack 
of  moisture  make  a  tough,  stringy  product  of  poor  quality. 

The  soil  requirements  are  varied.  As  a  rule  the  group 
is  more  or  less  cosmopolitan,  growing  on  either  heavy  or 
light  soils.  The  lighter  soils  produce  earlier  plants  while 
the  heavier  soils  will  usually  grow  larger  amounts. 

The  uses  of  this  group  are  many.  Some  plants  are  used 
as  salads,  others  for  garnishing  and  a  few  as  potherbs.  Many 
of  them  are  eaten  raw  while  a  few  are  cooked.  This  class  is 
very  important  and  serves  a  variety  of  purposes. 

Vegetables  Grown  for  Their  Fruit  and  Seed. — The  vegetables 
included  in  this  group  are  those  grown  for  either  their  fruit 
or  their  seed.  A  few  of  the  most  common  ones  are  the  bean, 
pea,  sweet  corn,  cucumber,  melon,  squash,  egg-plant,  tomato 
and  some  others.  This  group  includes  some  of  our  most 
valuable  food  plants.  The  dried  beans  and  peas  are  highly 
nutritious  and  should  be  found  in  every  garden.  In  addition 
to  the  high  food  value  found  in  this  group,  we  also  have  some 
of  the  most  palatable  and  the  finest  flavored  fruits.  There  is 
perhaps  nothing  that  can  equal  a  fine  sweet  musk  melon 
or  a  juicy  watermelon,  while  the  sweet  corn,  tomato  and 
cucumber  have  no  rival  in  their  class. 


28  PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 

The  general  requirements  for  the  plants  of  this  group  must 
necessarily  vary  greatly.  With  the  exception  of  the  pea, 
which  is  a  cool  weather  plant,  all  of  the  remaining  members 
of  this  group  are  warm  weather  plants  and  thrive  best  during 
the  warmer  part  of  the  growing  season.  The  group  also  has 
both  short  and  long  season  plants.  In  fact,  the  tomato,  egg- 
plant and  pepper  must  frequently  be  started  in  a  hot-bed 
in  order  to  have  them  mature  their  crops,  in  some  sections 
of  the  country  with  a  comparatively  short  growing  season. 
With  the  possible  exception  of  the  pea  the  remaining  plants 
of  this  group  are  all  tender  and  must  be  planted  after  danger 
of  frost  is  past. 

The  soil  should  be  well  prepared  and  fertile.  A  sandy 
loam  will  perhaps  best  serve  the  need  of  the  greater  number 
in  this  group,  although  they  are  not  averse  to  the  heavy  types 
of  soil.  Plenty  of  plant  food  and  humus  should  be  provided 
and  the  plants  should  be  kept  constantly  growing.  A  check 
in  growth  not  only  reduces  the  yield  but  materially  injures 
the  quality  of  some  of  the  finer  flavored  vegetables. 

The  uses  of  these  vegetables  are  varied.  In  fact,  they 
constitute  the  vegetables  that  are  found  on  our  tables  every 
day  in  the  year.  Many  of  these,  particularly  the  peas,  beans, 
corn  and  tomato,  are  staple  canned  goods  and  always  in 
demand.  The  beans  and  peas  are  both  canned  and  sold  in  a 
dry  state,  while  the  melons  are  used  only  in  the  fresh  state 
and  occupy  an  important  place  as  delicacies  in  their  season. 
As  a  class  this  group  is  exceedingly  important  and  one  that 
we  could  not  well  do  without. 

Fig.  2  gives  a  suggestive  plan  for  the  arrangement  of  a 
home  garden  25  by  30  feet.  This  garden  is  designed  for  the 
back  end  of  a  city  lot,  in  which  only  one-half  of  the  yard  is 
available  for  the  growing  of  fresh  vegetables.  It  is  primarily 
for  a  small  family.  This  arrangement  will  permit  the  use  of  a 
hand  cultivator,  which  can  be  operated  to  good  advantage. 
In  case  the  grower  does  not  own  an  implement  of  this  type, 
the  ordinary  hand  hoe  will  answer  the  purpose. 

This  plan  only  includes  a  few  vegetables,  but  they  will 
meet  with  approval  on  anyone's  table,  and  at  the  same  time 
will  give  a  sufficient  variety  so  as  not  to  become  monoto- 


VEGETABLES  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  FRUIT  AND  SEED      29 

nous.  The  rows  should  run  the  long  way  of  the  garden,  and 
where  it  is  possible  the  garden  should  be  arranged  so  that 
the  rows  will  run  north  and  south,  although  if  this  is  impos- 
sible no  serious  drawbacks  will  be  experienced  if  the  rows 
run  in  the  opposite  directions. 


NUMBER  1 
OF  ROW  | 

DISTANCE 
BETWEEN 
ROWS 

PLAN    OF   GARDEN 

25'  by  30' 
Scale  1"=  10' 

1 

'   2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 

IK' 

RADISHES 

IK' 

LETTUCE  FOLLOWED  BY  LATE  CABBAGE 

IK' 

ONIONS 

IK' 

SPRING  TURNIPS  FOLLOWED  BY  LATE  CAULIFLOWER 

ll/a' 

BEETS 

I1/,' 

GREEN  BEANS  FOLLOWED  BY  LATE  CABBAGE 

IK' 

WAX  BEANS 

2' 

CABBAGE  FOLLOWED  BY  ENDIVE 

2' 

EARLY  PEAS  FOLLOWED  BY  LATE  BUSH  BEANS 

2' 

EARLY  PEAS  FOLLOWED  BY  LATE  BUSH  BEANS 

2' 

BUSH  LIMA  BEANS 

2' 

BUSH  LIMA  BEANS 

2' 

TOMATOES 

2' 

SWEET  PEPPERS                                                 EGG  PLANT 

30- 


FIG.  2. — A  city  vegetable  garden,  25  by   30  feet. 

In  certain  sections  of  the  country,  where  the  rainfall  will 
permit,  or  where  water  for  irrigation  or  sprinkling  can  be 
supplied,  lettuce  and  green  beans  can  be  followed  by  late 
cabbage,  the  early  peas  can  be  followed  by  late  bush  beans, 
turnips  by  cauliflower  and  cabbage  by  endive.  This  arrange- 
ment makes  a  more  intensive  form  of  horticulture  and  keeps 
the  ground  occupied  all  of  the  growing  season. 

Heavy  applications  of  stable  manure  should  be  applied 
every  fall  if  the  highest  yields  are  to  be  expected. 


30 


PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 


Fig.  3  gives  a  tentative  arrangement  for  a  city  vegetable 
garden  25  by  40  feet.  This  garden  is  designed  to  be  some- 
what more  permanent  in  nature,  and  to  occupy  the  25  feet 


NUMBER 
OF  ROW 

DISTANCE 
BETWEEN 
ROWS 

PLAN    OF   GARDEN 

25'  by  40' 
Scale  1"=  10' 

LEAF  LETTUCE  FOLLOWED  BY  BEANS 

•  ' 

HEAD  LETTUCE 

' 

ONION  SETS  FOLLOWED  BY  BEANS 

' 

ONION  SEED 

' 

ONION  SEED 

g 

RADISHES  FOLLOWED  BY  BEANS 

7 

Itf 

EARLY  BEETS  FOLLOWED  BY  RADISHES 

Itf 

CARROTS 

I1/* 

PARSNIPS 

in 

Itf 

WAX  BEANS  FOLLOWED  BY  FALL  RADISHES 

«£ 

GREEN  BEANS  FOLLOWED  BY  LEAF  LETTUCE 

iMji 

EARLY  PEAS  FOLLOWED  BY    ENDIVE 

14 

1H' 

EARLY  PEAS  FOLLOWED  BY    ENDIVE 

14 

2' 

.     EARLY  TOMATOES 

15 

2' 

LATE  TOMATOES 

16 

2' 

LATE  TOMATOES 

17 

2' 

LATE  CABBAGE 

18 

2' 

LATE  CABBAGE 

19 

2' 

LATE  CABBAGE 

20 

3' 

RHUBARB 

91 

3' 

CURRANTS                            GOOSEBERRIES 

22 

3' 

ASPARAGUS 

fjq 

3' 

ASPARAGUS 

-25- 


FIG.  3. — A  city  vegetable  garden,  25  by  40  feet. 


on  the  lower  end  of  a  city  lot  that  is  40  feet  in  width.    The 
first  two  rows  include  asparagus,  the  third,  two  plants  of  the 


VEGETABLES  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  FRUIT  AND  SEED      31 

gooseberry  and  two  plants  of  the  currant,  and  the  fourth 
rhubarb  which  can  be  protected  in  the  winter  and  forced 
in  the  spring  by  banking  with  manure  or  with  straw.  The 
garden  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  rows  will  run  north 
and  south  when  possible,  but  this  will  be  determined  largely 
by  the  way  in  which  the  lot  faces. 

In  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient,  or  where  irriga- 
tion is  possible,  lettuce,  onions  and  radishes  can  be  followed 
by  bush-beans;  early  .beans  and  beets  can  be  followed  by  late 
radishes  and  lettuce;  and  early  peas  by  late  endive.  Where 
the  tomatoes  are  staked  the  plants  can  be  set  two  feet  apart 
each  way;  where  they  are  not  staked  or  pruned  they  must 
be  planted  four  feet  apart  each  way. 

Fig.  4  illustrates  a  city  vegetable  garden  30  by  60  feet. 
This  garden  is  planned  for  the  back  end  of  a  city  lot  or  for 
one  side  of  a  lot  that  can  be  devoted  to  the  growing  of 
economic  plants.  This  plan  is  rather  intensive  and  the  selec- 
tion of  the  vegetables  differs  from  that  of  Fig.  3.  Owing  to 
the  spacing  of  the  rows,  all  of  the  cultivation  must  be  done 
by  hand  tools,  such  as  hand  cultivators,  hoes,  rakes,  etc. 
This  plan  provides  a  greater  variety  of  vegetables  but  less 
in  quantity,  and  it  would  serve  only  a  small  family. 

The  asparagus  and  rhubarb  which  border  one  side  can 
either  be  placed  along  the  boundary  of  the  lot  or  the  border 
of  the  walk.  If  the  latter  location  is  chosen  it  will  serve  to 
screen  the  remainder  of  the  garden  from  public  view.  Where 
one  row  gives  too  large  a  quantity  of  one  vegetable  the 
row  can  be  divided  and  two  vegetables  of  a  similar  growing 
season  can  be  planted.  The  spinach  can  be  followed  by 
cucumbers  which  will  occupy  the  ground  vacated  by  the 
lettuce,  onions,  turnips,  etc.  The  early  beets  can  be  followed 
by  late  cabbage,  the  early  lettuce  and  radishes  by  late 
celery,  the  beans  by  late  cabbage  and  the  early  sweet  corn 
by  turnips.  The  tomatoes  should  be  staked  and  pruned, 
for  the  best  results,  where  such  an  intensive  plan  is  followed. 

Heavy  application  of  stable  manure  and  liberal  watering 
will  be  found  to  pay  well. 

Fig.  5  illustrates  a  home  garden  45  by  50  feet.  The  selec- 
tion of  the  different  crops  in  this  plan  is  designed  to  be 


32 


PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 


somewhat  more  permanent.  The  first  three  rows  are  devoted 
to  herbaceous  perennials  and  woody  plants  that  will  occupy 
the  ground  for  more  than  one  year.  In  selecting  this  plan  it 


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LETTUCE  FOLLO 

LATE  PEAS 

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LATE  SWEET 

DWARF  LIMA 

TOMATOES 

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4 

VEGETABLES  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  FRUIT  AND  SEED      33 


will  be  wise  to  so  place  the  garden  that  the  asparagus,  goose- 
berries and  currants  will  occupy  a  position  nearest  the  border, 
so  that  they  will  not  be  disturbed  for  several  years.  This 
plan  provides  for  one  portion  of  the  garden  to  be  somewhat 
intensive  and  the  other  portion  to  be  somewhat  extensive. 


NUMBER  1 
OF  ROW  1 

DISTANCE! 

BETWEEN 
ROWS 

PLAN    OF   GARDEN 

45'  by  50' 
Scale  l"  =16' 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

I 

9 

10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 
18 
19 

20 

3' 

ASPARAGUS 

3' 

GOOSEBERRIES 

^  CURRANTS 

3' 

HERBS                           HORSERADISH           ^    RHUBARB 

3' 

E£ 

RADISHES 

>GE 

^ 

1^' 

BEETS  
ONION  SEEDS 

PARSNIPS 

1^' 

CARROTS 

1J£ 

EARLY  CABBAGE 

1^' 

WAX  BEANS  FOLLOWED  BY  CUCUMBERS 

W 

GREEN  BEANS 

l|£ 

BUSH    LIMA  BEANS 

2«' 

EARLY  SWEET  CORN 

2*' 

LATE  SWEET  CORN  INTERPLANTED  WITH  PUMPKIN 

2«' 

LATE  SWEET  CORN 

3' 

EARLY  TOMATOES 

4' 

LATE  TOMATOES 

10' 

WINTER  SQUASH 

MtLON 

SUMMER  SQUASH 

-45- 


Fio.  5. — A  city  vegetable  garden,  45  by  50  feet. 

It  also  includes  many  cucurbits,  so  arranged  as  to  almost 
completely  cover  the  ground  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
growing  season.  It  is  advisable  to  use  the  hand  hoe  and 
rake  for  cultivating  this  garden.  The  winter  squash,  melons, 
pumpkins  and  the  summer  squash  can  either  be  planted  in 
hills  5  feet  apart  or  in  rows  with  the  individual  plants  stand- 
,3 


34 


PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 


ing  about  one  foot  apart  in  the  rows.  The  tomatoes  can  be 
either  staked  or  allowed  to  grow  without  staking.  Liberal 
application  of  stable  manure  and  planty  of  water  is  advisable. 


NUMBER 
1  OF  ROW 

DISTANCE 
;  BETWEEN 
ROWS 

PLAN    OF    GARDEN 

50'  by  75' 
Scale  l"=  20' 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 

28 

RAD  SHES 

HOTBED 

ONION   SEED 

ONION   SEED 

CARROTS 

PARSNIPS 

SA    SI    Y 

BE    T 

! 

COLD  FRAME 

GR  E     BEANS 

GR    E       BEANS    FOLLOWED   BY  SPINACH 

WA          EANS 

1W 

WA          EANS   FOLLOWED   BY   CELERY 

3' 

EARLY  PEAS  FOLLOWED  BY  CELERY 

EARLY  PEAS  FOLLOWED  BY  CELERY 

EARLY  CABBAGE  FOLLOWED  BY  PEAS 

*  i  *.* 
r-  ASPARAGUS 

V 

EARLY  CABBAGE  FOLLOWED  BY  PEAS 

LATE  CABBAGE 

LATE  CABBAGE 

EARLY  TOMATOES 

LATE  TOMATOES 

LATE  TOMATOES 

CUCUMBERS 

MUSKMELONS 

v<: 

AU 

RHUBARB 

EARLY  CORN 

EARLY  POTATOES  FOLLOWED  BY  ENDIVE 

3' 

EARLY  POTATOES  FOLLOWED  BY  ENDIVE 

12'           STRAWBERRIES 
CURRANTS                                    GOOSEBERRIES 

2' 

-50- 


FIG.  6. — A  suburban  home  garden,  50  by  75  feet. 

Fig.  6  illustrates  a  suburban  home  garden  50  by  75  feet. 
This  plan  is  designed  to  be  cultivated  by  both  horse  and  hand 
implements.  However  a  certain  amount  of  hoeing  will  be 
found  to  be  valuable.  This  plan  introduces  the  cold  frame 


VEGETABLES  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  FRUIT  AND  SEED     35 

in  addition  to  the  hot-bed.    It  is  advisable  to  construct  a 
four-sash  hot-bed  and  a  four-sash  cold  frame.     However, 


1  NUMBER] 
|  OF  ROW) 

DISTANCE 
JBETV/EEN 

ROWS 

PLAN    OF   GARDEN 

100'  by  150' 
Scale  r=32' 

1 
2 

3 
4 
5 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
13 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 

6' 

CURRANTS                                          n  GOOSEBERRIES 

6' 

ASPARAGUS 

3' 

ASPARAGUS 

3' 

RHUBARB 

0' 

HOTBED          COLD  FRAME 

STRAWBERRIES 

3' 

EARLY  POTATOES  FOLLOWED  BY  ENDIVE 

3' 

EARLY  POTATOES  FOLLOWED  BY  TURNIPS 

3' 

EARLY  POTATOES  FOLLOWED  BY  TURNIPS 

3' 

LATE  POTATOES 

3' 

LATE  POTATOES 

3' 

LATE  POTATOES 

3' 

SWEET  POTATOES 

3' 

SWEET  POTATOES 

3' 

TOMATOES 

3' 

TOMATOES 

3' 

TOMATOES 

3' 

EARLY  SWEET  CORN 

3' 

EARLY  SWEET  CORN  INTERPLANTED  WITH  HUBBARD  SQUASH 

3' 

MEJX    EARLY  SWEET  CORN 

f 

LATE  SWEET  CORN 

3' 

LATE  SWEET  CORN 

.3' 

LATE  SWEET  CORN 

3' 

EGG  PLANT                                                       _       SWEET 

PEPPERS 

*2' 

EARLY  CABBAGE                                                               O 

»t 

EARLY  CABBAGE 

2' 

MEDIUM   EARLY  CABBAGE 

28 
29 

80 

1 

31 
35 
36 

39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 

|J 

EARLY   CAULIFLOWER 

6' 

CUCUMBERS 

6' 

MELONS 

2' 

ONIONS 

ONIONS 

2' 

2' 

ONIONS 

2' 

SALSIFY 

2' 

PARSNIPS 

2' 

CARROTS 

2' 

CARROTS 

2' 

DRIED    BEANS 

2' 

2' 

LATE  WAX    BEANS 

2' 

MEDIUM  EARLY  GREEN   BEANS 

45 

u; 

2' 

EARLY  PEAS 

47 
48 
49 

SO 

2' 

EARLY    PEAS 

2' 

SPINACH   FOLLOWED  BY  LATE  CABBAGE 

2' 

ONION    SETS 

51 

r 

RADISHES 

2' 

HEAD  LETTUCE                                                                   p,    LOOSE  L 

:AF  LtTT»CE 

2' 

KOHLRABI                                                                               U 

2' 

100'- 

FIG.  7. — A  farm  garden^  100  by]  150  feet. 


36  PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN 

the  hotbed  space  can  be  made  either  larger  or  smaller  accord- 
ing to  the  conditions.  In  such  an  event  the  space  devoted 
to  the  asparagus  can  either  be  reduced  or  extended.  In  case 
the  cold  frames  are  not  desired  the  space  can  be  devoted  to 
an  outdoor  seed-bed,  which  is  of  great  value. 

The  celery  must  be  bleached  with  either  boards,  tile  or 
paper  placed  around  the  plants,  because  the  space  is  hardly 
sufficient  to  bank  the  plants  with  earth.  The  late  endive, 
can  follow  the  potatoes  where  the  growing  season  is  suffi- 
ciently long  to  permit  it  to  mature. 

The  border  row  should  include  the  currants  and  goose- 
berries. The  strawberries  should  be  planted  in  rows  2  feet 
apart  and  the  plants  12  inches  in  the  rows.  The  asparagus 
and  rhubarb  plants  should  be  set  2  feet  apart  in  the  rows 
and  the  rows  3  feet  apart. 

Heavy  applications  of  stable  manure  should  be  given  to 
the  soil  every  year. 

Fig.  7  illustrates  a  farm  garden  100  by  150  feet.  This 
plan  provides  for  the  perennial  vegetables  and  small  fruits, 
in  addition  to  the  annual  vegetables.  This  garden  requires 
the  use  of  both  the  horse  and  the  hand  cultivators.  The 
space  allotment  to  the  hot-bed  and  the  cold  frame  can  be 
either  reduced  or  extended  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  individual. 
The  early  potatoes  can  be  followed  by  endive  and  turnips 
and  one  row  of  the  early  sweet  corn  interplanted  with 
hubbard  squash.  The  short  season  vegetables  can  be  fol- 
lowed with  appropriate  crops. 

Heavy  applications  of  barnyard  manure  will  be  found  to 
be  of  great  value,  and  where  it  is  possible  fall  plowing  is 
advisable. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Define  horticulture.     What  two  kinds  are  practised? 

2.  What  is  amateur  and  commercial  horticulture? 

3.  Name  three  kinds  of  home  vegetable  gardens. 

4.  What  is  the  basis  for  this  division? 

5.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  first  draw  a  plan  of  your  garden? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  the  unit  of  measure? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  a  scale? 

8.  What  determines  the  scale  which  should  be  selected? 

9.  Describe  the  method  of  laying  out  a  garden  on  paper. 
10.  Discuss  the  location  of  a  garden. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  37 

11.  What  important  points  must  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  the 
garden  site? 

12.  Why  is  a  gentle  southern  slope  preferable? 

13.  What  is  the  proper  degree  of  the  slope?     Why? 

14.  What  is  the  value  of  a  wind-break?     How  many  kinds  do  we  have? 

15.  What  determines  the  size  of  a  garden? 

16.  Draw  a  plan  of  a  home  garden  for  the  city  lot,  the  suburban  lot  and 
the  farm. 

17.  Upon  what  does  the  preparation  of  the  garden  soil  depend? 

18.  What  is  gained  by  fall  plowing?     Can  all  soils  be  so  treated?     Discuss. 

19.  What  is  the  best  fertilizer  for  the  garden?     Why? 

20.  When  and  under  what  conditions  should  commercial  fertilizers  be 
used? 

21.  Differentiate  between  succession  and  companion  planting. 

22.  How  does  rotation  differ  from  succession  planting? 

23.  Name  the  most  important  root  crops  and  tell  what  type  of  soil  is 
best  suited  to  their  growth. 

24.  Why  can  the  foliage  crops  be  grown  on  a  greater  variety  of  soils  than 
the  root  crops? 

25.  Name  and  discuss  the  requirements  for  the  vegetables  grown  for 
their  fruits. 


CHAPTER   II. 
THE  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS. 

The  Seed. — The  seed  is  composed  of  three  distinct  parts: 
(1)  the  embryo  or  vital  center,  (2)  the  protective  coat,  and 
(3)  the  food  materials.  The  seed  is  not  a  lifeless,  inert 
structure,  as  is  thought  by  many,  but,  contrary  to  this  belief, 
it  is  definitely  known  that  chemical  changes  are  constantly 
going  on  within  the  seed  coat.  The  changes  that  are  known 
to  take  place  are  (1)  water  and  carbonic  acid  gas  are  given 
off,  (2)  a  variation  in  the  color  of  the  seed,  and  (3)  the  food 
materials  are  undergoing  a  gradual  alteration. 

Germination. — Germination  is  the  process  by  which  an 
embryo  develops  into  a  complete  plant.  It  might  also  be 
defined  as  the  sprouting  of  a  seed.  Germination  is  said  to 
be  finished  when  the  seedling  begins  an  independent  exist- 
ence. There  are  two  distinct  stages  in  the  process  of  germi- 
nation: (1)  that  marked  by  the  appearance  of  the  rootlets, 
and  (2)  the  subsequent  development  of  the  embryo  into  a 
self-sustaining  plant.  Since  the  nourishment  for  the  young 
plant  comes  wholly  from  the  seed  during  both  stages,  the 
second  stage  in  the  process  is  quite  as  important  as  the  first. 

In  addition  to  the  internal  changes  which  go  on  there  are 
three  distinct  external  conditions  requisite  to  germination: 
(1)  the  proper  amount  of  water,  (2)  free  oxygen  or  air,  and 
(3)  an  increase  in  the  temperature. 

Water  Necessary  for  Germination. — The  amount  of  water 
required  to  start  the  germination  of  a  seed  is  that  quantity 
which  will  give  complete  saturation.  This  varies  with  the 
seed.  The  amount  of  water  absorbed  also  varies  greatly 
in  the  different  climates,  but  it  seems  to  depend  upon  two 
conditions:  (1)  the  character  of  the  stored  food  and  (2)  the 
amount  of  water  already  present  in  the  seed.  Some  seed, 


GERMINATION 


39 


like  the  leguminous  seed,  absorb  a  great  amount  of  water, 
and  not  infrequently  this  amount  is  equal  to  the  weight  of 
the  seed  itself,  and  in  some  of  the  clovers  it  amounts  to 
more  than  the  weight  of  the  seed. 

A  second  requisite  for  good  germination  of  a  seed  is  the 
proper  amount  of  water  in  the  soil.  The  soil  should  be  wet 
but  not  sticky.  The  seeds  must  be  in  intimate  contact  with 
the  soil  at  many  points  and  the  soil  should  be  fine  and  com- 
pactly firmed  about  the  seed  so  the  water  in  the  soil  can  be 
used.  In  addition  to  the  proper  amount  of  water  in  the  soil 
a  warm  temperature  favors  the  absorption  of  water  and 
hastens  the  germination. 


Fio.  8. — Longitudinal  section  of  a  double  seed  pot  used  to  regulate  the 
amount  of  water  for  very  small  seeds. 

Regulation  of  Water.— The  calling  of  a  dormant  embryo 
of  a  seed  into  life  must  take  place  gradually.  The  chief 
difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  seed  require  widely  varying 
amounts  of  water,  depending  upon  the  species,  the  soil, 
the  season  of  the  year,  the  age,  the  size  and  the  state  of 
development.  The  structure  of  a  seed  itself  often  reveals 
its  requirements  as  to  water.  Seed  with  hard  and  thick  coats 
require  more  water  than  do  those  with  thin,  soft  coverings. 
Large  and  heavy  seed  are  less  liable  to  injury  by  top  much 
water  than  the  small,  weak  ones.  Fresh  and  vigorous  seed 
will  endure  more  moisture  than  old  ones,  and  to  know  the 
requirements  of  any  species,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  know 


40  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 

something  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  plant  producing 
them  grew  to  maturity. 

Except  in  the  case  of  soaking,  water  should  not  be  applied 
directly  to  seed  but  through  some  medium  in  which  the 
water  can  be  carefully  regulated.  The  usual  media  are  soils, 
plant  fiber,  earthenware  and  occasionally  bricks  or  tile. 

Seed  should  not  be  kept  permanently  wet,  because  in 
such  an  event  oxygen  cannot  enter  the  soil,  which,  in  turn, 
causes  the  seed  tissue  to  break  down  with  the  formation  of 
alcohol,  and  later  oils  and  acids,  and  the  seeds  are  ruined 
by  rotting.  It  is  a  safe  rule  to  allow  the  seed-bed  to  become 
quite  dry  before  watering.  When  watering  the  whole  mass 
of  earth  should  be  completely  saturated.  It  is  rarely  ever 
advisable  to  give  a  light  sprinkling  to  the  surface.  The 
practice  of  repeatedly  wetting  the  upper  surface  of  the  soil 
is  most  detrimental.  It  causes  a  crust  to  form  and  brings 
the  tender  roots  to  the  surface,  which  are  later  injured  by 
drying  out.  A  watering  pot  with  a  fine  spray  is  the  best 
means  of  applying  the  water,  because  the  hose  usually  packs 
the  soil,  washes  out  the  seed  and  makes  it  difficult  to  regulate 
the  quantity. 

Oxygen  Necessary  for  Germination. — Oxygen  is  quite  as 
important  to  the  seed  as  is  water.  In  the  absence  of  oxygen 
the  food  materials  in  the  seed  do  not  pass  into  solution  and 
do  not  become  available  for  the  young  plant.  Without 
oxygen  there  can  be  no  organic  life,  and  this  is  as  true  of 
plants  at  this  stage  as  at  any  other.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  movement  of  the  protoplasm  ceases  at  once  in  sprouting 
seeds  if  a  supply  of  oxygen  is  not  present,  even  when  the 
conditions  of  moisture  and  temperature  are  favorable.  In 
the  presence  of  moisture  and  the  absence  of  oxygen,  alcoholic 
and  other  fermentations  quickly  take  place. 

In  the  sowing  of  seed  the  aeration  of  the  soil  must  be  taken 
into  account,  so  there  can  be  an  interchange  of  gases,  espe- 
cially of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  gas. 

The  main  considerations  in  securing  a  supply  of  oxygen 
for  seed  are:  (1)  Do  not  drive  out  all  of  the  oxygen  in  the 
crevices  of  the  soil  by  heavy  watering.  (2)  Do  not  cover  the 
seed  so  deep  that  it  will  prevent  the  easy  access  of  the  air. 


GERMINATION  41 

The  depth  to  which  the  seed  should  be  planted  depends 
partly  upon  the  porosity  of  the  soil  and  partly  upon  the  size 
of  the  seed.  (3)  Prevent  the  caking  of  the  soil,  which  is 
usually  caused  either  by  repeated  waterings  or  by  allowing 
the  soil  to  dry  out  too  quickly. 

Temperature  Necessary  for  Germination. — There  is  a  wide 
range  of  temperature  at  which  the  many  kinds  of  seed 
will  germinate.  The  proper  temperature  depends  primarily 
upon  the  constitutional  peculiarities  of  the  seed.  Some  seed 
will  germinate  close  to  the  freezing-point  and  often  they  may 
be  repeatedly  frozen  and  thawed  without  this  process  causing 
harmful  results.  Rye  gives  a  fitting  example.  The  seed 
of  this  plant  can  be  germinated  on  cakes  of  ice,  and  seemingly 
experiences  no  great  difficulty  in  growing.  However,  this 
is  an  exceptional  example,  and  many  other  seed,  which 
include  by  far  the  greater  number  of  species,  fail  to  germinate 
unless  the  proper  temperature  is  maintained. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  temperature  recognized  for  the 
germination  of  seed:  (1)  minimum;  (2)  optimum;  and  (3) 
maximum.  The  minimum  temperature  is  the  lowest  tem- 
perature at  which  a  seed  will  germinate.  The  maximum 
is  the  highest  temperature  at  which  a  seed  will  germinate. 
The  optimum  is  the  medium  temperature  between  the 
minimum  and  the  maximum.  The  optimum  is  the  best 
temperature  at  which  to  place  a  seed  for  proper  germina- 
tion. The  optimum  temperature  is  not  a  stationary  tempera- 
ture but  it  fluctuates  up  and  down,  due  to  the  species, 
the  difference  in  vigor,  the  ripeness  and  the  general  condi- 
tions of  the  seed  in  question. 

There  is  no  way  of  very  accurately  controlling  the  tempera- 
ture out  of  doors.  The  depth  of  planting  is  the  only  practical 
means  of  regulating  the  temperature  to  any  degree,  and  this 
only  slightly.  This  also  influences  the  degree  of  moisture 
in  the  open  ground  as  well  as  the  temperature.  However, 
there  is  a  direct  influence  upon  the  essential  growth  01  the 
plant  determined  by  either  deep  or  shallow  planting.  A 
seed  can  be  planted  much  deeper  in  a  light  soil  than  in  heavy 
clay  soil.  It  can  also  be  planted  deeper  late  in  the  season 
than  early  in  the  season.  The  seed  must  not  be  planted 


42  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 

on  account  of  the  temperature. deeper  than  is  necessary  to 
secure  the  proper  amount  of  moisture. 

Processes  of  Germination. — The  processes  of  germination 
are  divided  into  five  distinct  stages:  (1)  the  seed  mechanically 
absorbs  water  which  causes  it  to  swell;  (2)  the  absorption 
of  oxygen;  (3)  by  the  absorption  of  the  water  and  the  oxygen 
the  food  materials  are  brought  into  solution.  Some  of  the 
food  materials  as  sugars  are  soluble  in  the  water,  while  others, 
such  as  the  oils  and  the  starch  must  undergo  a  chemical 
change  before  becoming  soluble.  The  oils  are  thought  to 
pass  through  several  changes,  finally  being  transformed 
into  starch.  All  of  the  starches  are  then  acted  upon  by 
certain  ferments  which  convert  them  into  soluble  carbohy- 
drates. (4)  The  soluble  food  passes  to  the  growing  parts  of 
the  plant.  (5)  The  food  is  then  employed  in  the  unfolding 
and  the  building  up  of  the  embryo.  After  the  first  two 
steps  the  processes  go  on  simultaneously. 

The  Internal  Conditions  Effecting  Germination. — In  con- 
sidering germination  the  internal  conditions  governing  the 
germination  of  seed  must  be  emphasized.  These  are  quite 
as  important  as  the  external  factors  and  are  four  in  number: 
(1)  maturity,  (2)  soundness,  (3)  viability,  and  (4)  germinative 
energy. 

The  Maturity  of  a  Seed. — The  power  of  germination  in  a 
seed  is  not  one  of  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
maturity  of  a  seed  because  many  seeds  will  germinate  long 
before  their  color,  weight,  size  or  shape  indicates  maturity. 
Innumerable  experiments,  as  well  as  many  examples  seen  in 
the  common  practice  of  gardening,  have  proved  that  the 
viability  of  a  seed  is  not  coincident  with  the  maturity  but 
precedes  it.  Maturity  may  be  summed  up  by  saying  that 
when  plants  are  grown  from  seed  that  are  immature  the 
following  detrimental  effects  are  seen  in  the  plant:  (1)  there 
is  a  loss  of  vigor  shown  by  the  smaller  percentage  of  germina- 
tion; (2)  the  weakness  of  the  seedlings;  (3)  a  greater  number 
of  plants  die  before  maturity;  (4)  the  full  vigor  of  the  plant 
is  never  recovered,  although  it  may  and  usually  does  produce 
an  abundant  harvest;  (5)  the  reproductive  parts  of  the  plant 
are  increased  in  proportion  to  the  vegetative  parts. 


LONGEVITY  OF  A  SEED  43 

Soundness  of  a  Seed. — Seeds  which  are  not  sound  have 
their  vitality  weakened.  The  soundness  of  a  seed  is  influenced 
by:  (1)  Injury  due  to  thrashing;  (2)  by  the  action  of  physical 
or  chemical  agents;  (3)  by  being  imperfect  or  shrivelled;  (4) 
by  being  produced  from  plants  that  were  stunted  in  their 
growth  either  by  fungi  or  insects.  All  of  these  phases  are 
harmful  to  the  germination  of  a  seed.  It  follows,  then,  from 
facts  well  in  hand,  that  seeds  which  are  in  any  way  injured 
should  be  discarded,  and  that  soundness  should  be  one  of  the 
requisites  of  a  good  seed.  Unsound  seed  should  be  destroyed 
because  weakly  and  sickly  plants  will  be  produced. 

Seed  that  are  eaten  or  injured  by  certain  insects,  such  as 
the  pea  weevil  or  bean  weevil,  produce  great  loss  annually. 
Plants  grown  from  seed  injured  in  this  way  are  retarded  in 
growth,  with  the  result  that  weak  plants  are  produced.  The 
amount  of  damage  resulting  to  seed  by  the  attacks  of  insects 
is  not  always  in  proportion  to  the  part  injured.  The  pea 
weevil  sometimes  destroys  most  of  the  stored  food  in  the  pea, 
but  if  the  pumule  is  untouched  the  pea  will  germinate.  On 
the  other  hand  a  slight  injury  to  the  pumule  will  destroy  the 
germinating  power  of  the  seed  even  though  all  of  the  food 
material  in  uninjured. 

Longevity  of  a  Seed. — The  length  of  time  a  seed  is  alive  is 
called  longevity.  The  longevity  of  seed  is  a  much-discussed 
question,  although  one  that  can  be  easily  settled,  and  a 
question  upon  which  there  is  much  authentic  data.  The  lon- 
gevity of  a  seed  depends  for  the  most  part  upon  the  species, 
but  also  differs  widely  in  this  respect.  The  climatic  con- 
ditions materially  influence  the  longevity  of  a  seed,  and  none 
of  the  qualities  of  a  seed,  such  as  weight,  color  or  size,  seem 
to  be  correlated  in  any  way  with  the  length  of  life  of  the 
embryo  of  a  seed.  Poor  method  of  harvesting;  poor  storage 
facilities;  mechanical  injuries  of  various  kinds,  which  affect 
the  food  supply  of  the  embryo,  all  tend  to  shorten  the  life 
of  the  seed.  Likewise  immature  seeds  begin  to  fail  earlier 
and  die  before  their  natural  time.  Improper  fertilization  or 
poorly  formed  and  imperfect  embryo  give  short-lived  seed. 
The  position  of  the  fruit  on  the  plant  sometimes  exercises 
an  influence  on  the  germinating  power  of  the  seed. 


44  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 

Germinative  Energy  of  a  Seed. — The  germinative  energy 
or  the  speed  of  germination  is  that  energy  which  is  required 
for  the  germination  of  a  seed.  The  length  of  time  this 
energy  is  available  varies  from  a  few  hours  to  several  years, 
depending  upon  the  different  species  of  plants.  The  reasons 
for  these  variations  in  certain  plants  are  not  well  understood, 
although  they  are  probably  caused  to  some  extent  (1)  by 
the  different  degrees  of  ripeness  of  the  seed,  (2)  by  the  nature 
of  the  seed  coat,  and  (3)  by  the  different  degrees  of  stability 
of  the  food  compounds.  Possibly  the  embryo  might  be 
influenced  to  a  limited  extent  by  heredity. 

The  shorter  the  period  of  germination  the  better,  because 
after  the  seed  is  once  planted  it  is  in  constant  danger  of 
destruction  from  various  causes,  as,  for  example,  by  insects 
or  predaceous  animals. 

The  seed  of  different  species  of  plants  require  different 
germinative  periods,  but  there  is  an  abnormal  condition 
recognized  by  seedsmen,  due  to  the  hard  condition  of  the 
testa  or  seed  coat  of  some  seed,  and  because  of  this  hardness 
of  the  seed  coat  the  absorption  of  water  cannot  take  place. 
These  seeds  are  known  as  "hard  seed"  or  hard-shelled  seed, 
and  are  common  in  legumes  as  well  as  in  some  other  plants. 
The  power  to  germinate  is  present  in  these  hard-coated  seeds, 
and  their  value  is  not  impaired.  This  defect  is  caused  for  the 
most  part  by  the  presence  of  abnormal  quantities  of  silica, 
lime  and  other  ash  ingredients  in  the  seed  coat,  and  are 
substances  which  are  not  affected  by  soaking  in  water. 
These  defects  can  be  remedied  (1)  by  filing  of  the  seed  coat, 
(2)  by  mixing  the  seed  with  sharp  sand,  (3)  by  revolving  the 
seed  in  a  cylinder  with  corrugated  edge,  (4)  by  the  cracking 
or  the  breaking  of  the  seed  coat  with  a  hammer,  (5)  by  the 
treatment  of  the  seed  with  chemicals,  such  as  weak  acids. 

Seed  Testing. — In  order  to  guard  against  failure,  germi- 
nation tests  for  all  seed  should  be  made  every  season.  Seed 
testing  consists  in  the  counting  out  of  a  definite  number  of 
seed,  of  which  the  usual  number  is  one  hundred.  The  seed 
must  not  be  specially  selected,  but  should  represent  a  fair 
sample  of  the  lot. 

The  testing  of  seed  is  very  important  and  its  value  cannot 


SEED  TESTERS  45 

be  overestimated  from  the  standpoint  of  profits.  In  all  inten- 
sive agricultural  and  more  particularly  in  horticultural  work 
the  money  made  from  a  given  crop  is  largely  determined  by 
the  time  at  which  the  crop  reaches  the  market.  In  order  to 
secure  the  maximum  yields  from  a  given  piece  of  land  there 
must  be  a  full  stand  of  plants  and  not  one-half  or  two-thirds 
of  a  stand.  If  the  testing  of  the  seeds  is  neglected  and  their 
vitality  happens  to  be  low  the  stand  of  plants  will  be  below 
the  normal  number,  consequently  the  yield  will  be  reduced 
to  a  point  where  no  profits  are  made.  Unless  the  seed  is 
tested  the  stand  of  plants  cannot  be  ascertained  until  the 
seed  come  up.  If  a  poor  stand  at  this  late  date  is  discovered, 
and  even  if  replanting  is  then  resorted  to,  the  time  lost  is  so 
great  that  the  crop  will  come  on  the  market  at  a  time  when 
every  grower  is  producing  the  same  crop,  and  consequently 
the  price  is  so  reduced  that  the  crop  is  often  unprofitable. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  seed  had  been  tested  the  grower 
would  have  known  what  percentage  of  seed  would  germinate, 
and  he  could  plant  accordingly.  If  a  given  sample  tested 
95  per  cent,  it  would  only  be  necessary  to  plant  in  the 
normal  way,  with  the  result  of  a  good  stand  of  plants;  but  if 
the  sample  only  tested  50  per  cent,  then  it  would  be  either 
necessary  to  plant  twice  as  many  seeds  or  purchase  more  seed 
with  greater  vitality.  The  progressive  grower  always  guards 
against  a  possible  loss.  Consequently  he  germinates  his  seed 
prior  to  the  time  for  planting  and  he  knows  definitely  how 
many  seed  can  be  expected  to  grow  and  then  plants  accord- 
ingly. 

Seed  Testers. — There  are  four  kinds  of  seed  testers.  These 
are  more  or  less  distinct,  and  some  kinds  can  easily  be  made 
by  the  grower. 

The  dinner-plate  seed  tester  (Fig.  9)  consists  of  two  large- 
sized  dinner  plates,  the  one  turned  over  the  other.  Between 
the  plates  are  placed  two  or  three  blotters  covered  with 
two  pieces  of  canton  flannel.  The  material  is  moistened 
with  water  and  the  seed  are  placed  between  the  blotters 
and  are  set  in  a  warm  room  until  they  germinate.  It  is 
always  well  to  change  the  blotters  after  each  test,  in  order 
to  guard  against  infection  by  fungi,  which  sometimes  cause 
the  seed  to  mould. 


46 


SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 


The  germinating  cup  is  a  small  earthen  vessel,  3  inches  in 
diameter  or  3  inches  square  and  1J  inches  deep.  The  cup  is 
covered  with  a  lid  of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  the  top  of 
cup,  in  which  are  a  number  of  small  holes.  The  cup  is  placed 
in  a  shallow  pan  of  water  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about 
75°  or  80°  F.  Germinating  cups  must  be  thoroughly  steril- 
ized before  the  seeds  are  placed  in  them. 


FIG.  9. — The  dinner-plate  seed  tester. 

The  tile  germinator  is  a  large  tile,  12  x  15  inches  and  2 
inches  deep,  in  which  have  been  molded  pockets  varying  in 
size  from  1  inch  to  3  inches  in  diameter.  This  tester  is 
placed  in  a  shallow  pan  of  water  the  same  as  the  germinating 
cups.  Usually  it  is  advisable  to  cover  the  top  of  the  tester 
with  a  pane  of  glass  to  prevent  spores  of  fungi  from  falling 
on  the  seeds  and  causing  trouble. 

The  Geneva  seed  tester  is  a  galvanized  iron  pan,  10  inches 
wide,  14  inches  long  and  3J  inches  deep,  with  a  ledge  f  inch 
wide  along  the  sides.  The  seed  are  held  in  folds  of  cloth 
suspended  on  rods  which  rest  on  this  ledge.  The  water  is 
carried  to  the  seed  through  capillarity.  A  pane  of  glass  is 


SOIL  FOR  THE  SEED-BED  47 

usually  placed  over  the  tester  after  the  seed  have  been 
arranged . 

Seed-bed. — In  the  growing  of  plants  a  good  seed-bed  is 
absolutely  essential  and  is  a  very  important  adjunct  to  the 
successful  manipulation  of  the  plants. 

If  the  seed-bed  is  improperly  prepared  the  subsequent 
growth  of  the  plants  is  often  retarded.  The  soil,  however, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  seed-bed,  and  the 
following  points  should  be  given  considerable  attention 
before  the  selection  is  made:  (1)  The  soil  should  be  possessed 
with  the  power  of  holding  water;  (2)  the  soil  should  be  such 
as  to  maintain  the  proper  degree  of  heat;  (3)  the  seed-bed 
should  be  well  drained;  (4)  the  soil  must  never  be  allowed 
to  get  too  wet.  If  any  of  these  factors  are  neglected 
the  efficiency  of  the  seed  bed  is  reduced.  Attention  should 
be  given  to  all  of  these  points,  with  the  view  of  making 
them  as  near  perfect  as  it  is  possible  to  do.  The  seed  need 
constant  watching  and  careful  attention.  The  soil,  if  possible, 
should  be  kept  a  few  degrees  warmer  than  the  air,  and  should 
be  uniform  in  moisture.  Cold  air  should  be  avoided. 

Soil  for  the  Seed-bed. — The  soil  should  be  carefully  selected 
and  an  attempt  made  to  bring  it  into  the  best  possible  shape. 
Experienced  growers  know  that  the  choice  of  soil  depends 
not  so  much  upon  the  nutritive  substances  it  contains  but 
upon  its  physical  properties,  its  power  of  retaining  water  and 
its  porosity.  In  the  sowing  of  seed  we  are  not  limited  to 
any  special  soil  but  may  select  practically  any  type  having 
good  physical  qualities.  Experience  has  taught  us  that 
seed  of  certain  species  will  do  better  in  some  special  soils. 
A  light  sandy  soil  will  probably  make  the  best  seed-bed  for 
all  general  purposes,  since  it  has  a  large  number  of  good 
qualities.  For  some  seed  a  muck  or  a  peat  soil  is  considered 
excellent.  Such  a  soil  is  very  easily  handled  and  is  well 
suited  for  seed  of  a  great  number  of  plants.  By  a  little  experi- 
ence one  can  judge  a  good  soil  by  its  appearance.  If  the 
soil  is  too  heavy  it  can  be  made  lighter  by  the  addition  of  the 
right  proportion  of  some  lighter  soil,  such  as  sand  or  by  the 
use  of  decaying  organic  matter  found  in  well-rotted  manure 
or  leaf  mould.  Sand  in  too  large  a  quantity  is  not  desirable, 


48  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 

because  it  contains  neither  life  nor  humus  and  tends  to  make 
a  dead  soil.  If,  however,  the  soil  is  too  light  a  clay  or  a  heavy 
loam  may  be  added. 

The  physical  properties  of  the  soil  should  be  such  as  not  to 
pack,  and  this  can  be  easily  determined  by  taking  a  small 
portion  in  the  hand  and  firmly  squeezing  it.  If  the  soil 
falls  apart  it  has  about  the  right  amount  of  water;  if  it  is 
compact  it  is  either  too  wet  or  too  heavy  for  the  planting  of 
seed  and  the  best  results  will  not  be  obtained.  A  small 
amount  of  plant  food  is  an  advantage  although  not  a  necessity 
at  this  stage  of  growth.  The  soil  for  the  seed-bed  should  be 
free  from  an  excessive  amount  of  moisture,  the  larvae  of 
injurious  insects,  and  as  free  as  possible  from  foreign  weed 
seed. 


FIG.  10. — A  wooden  marker  to  regulate  the  depth  for  planting  seed. 

The  freezing  of  the  soil  will  rid  it  of  many  of  the  injurious 
animal  organisms  and  at  the  same  time  will  put  it  in  a  better 
physical  condition.  Whenever  it  is  possible  it  will  be  highly 
advantageous  to  subject  the  soil  to  repeated  freezings  and 
thawings  before  using  it  in  the  seed-boxes. 

Depth  of  Planting. — Seed  are  covered  with  soil  to  secure 
an  intimate  contact  with  the  moist  earth.  Care  should  be 
exercised  in  not  excluding  the  air  because  that  would  be  highly 
injurious  to  the  seed.  The  proper  depth  must  always  be 
judged  by  the  gardener  and  is  determined  largely  by  the  size 
of  the  seed  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  It  is  apparent,  however, 
that  the  small,  delicate  seed,  whose  powers  of  germination 


TIME  TO  PLANT  49 

are  reduced  in  proportion  to  their  size,  should  have  very 
little  covering,  because  the  tender  plantlet  will  be  unable 
to  push  through  the  soil.  In  the  large  and  vigorous  seeds 
this  precaution  need  not  be  taken.  However,  it  is  never 
beneficial  to  cover  the  seed  deeper  than  is  really  necessary 
to  secure  the  requisite  degree  of  moisture.  Many  small 
seed  are  often  sown  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  covered 
with  a  thin  mulch,  while  some  others  need  no  covering  except 
a  pane  of  glass  to  retain  the  proper  amount  of  moisture.  If 
the  seed  are  planted  in  the  open  the  same  precautions  are 
necessary. 

Compacting  of  the  Soil. — The  seed  must  be  in  intimate 
contact  with  the  soil  particles  in  order  to  secure  the  proper 
amount  of  moisture  to  germinate.  If  the  soil  is  loose  about 


FIG.  11. — A  firming  board. 

the  seed  they  get  but  little  moisture,  which  prevents  their 
maximum  germination  and  the  subsequent  growth  of  the 
plantlet.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  soil  must  be  firmed  over  the 
seed  to  give  the  best  results.  This  is  accomplished  in  many 
field  crops  by  the  use  of  heavy  rollers.  In  market  gardening 
the  roller  follows  the  seed  drill  and  is  usually  a  part  of  it. 
When  seed  is  sown  in  flats  a  firming  board  is  usually  employed 
to  compact  the  soil  about  the  seed,  or  the  soil  may  be  pressed 
down  with  the  hands. 

Time  to  Plant. — All  plants  require  a  definite  period  in  order 
to  grow  to  maturity.  The  proper  time  then  to  sow  the  seed 
would  be  such  that  the  growing  period  would  be  long  enough 
to  bring  the  crop  to  its  full  state  of  ripeness.  The  time  at 
which  planting  is  to  be  done  must  be  kept  in  mind,  remember- 
ing, however,  that  seed  of  certain  plants  that  are  sown  too 
early  or  too  late,  and  which  will  encounter  unfavorable  heat 
or  moisture  conditions,  will  not  produce  good  plants.  It  is 
4 


50  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 

impossible  to  set  a  definite  date  for  the  sowing  of  the  seed, 
since  the  season,  the  climate,  the  moisture  and  the  location 
vary  so  much  that  good  judgment  must  be  used  in  every 
locality.  The  local  vegetation  should  be  used  as  an  index  in 
determining  the  proper  time  of  planting.  As  an  example  of 
this  the  seed  of  hardy  plants,  such  as  the  peas,  the  onions, 
and  the  radishes,  are  usually  sown  when  the  peaches  begin 
to  bloom,  or  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked  in  the  spring. 
Other  crops  which  are  not  so  hardy  should  be  sown  about  a 
week  or  ten  days  later.  Warm,  tender  plants,  as  the  tomato, 
the  egg  plant,  the  pepper  and  many  others,  should  not  be 
planted  until  all  danger  of  frost  has  past.  The  time  at  which 
the  last  frost  occurs,  of  course,  varies  in  all  localities  as  well 
as  in  different  seasons/  In  the  South  the  seed  can  be  sown 
earlier,  while  farther  North,  where  the  season  is  later,  the  seed 
must  necessarily  be  sown  later.  In  the  sowing  of  seed  it  is 
always  a  good  practice  to  sow  a  larger  amount  than  is  neces- 
sary to  secure  a  good  stand,  because  this  will  ensure  against 
any  loss  from  unavoidable  causes.  The  extra  cost  in  the  sow- 
ing of  twice  the  amount  of  seed  required  is  very  small  in  com- 
parison with  the  time  and  space  lost  when  a  poor  stand  results. 

Sowing  of  Seed. — There  are  two  methods  by  which  seed 
are  sown:  (1)  broadcasting  and  (2)  sowing  in  drills.  Broad- 
casting is  the  distribution  of  seed  freely  over  the  surface  from 
the  open  hand  through  the  thumb  and  fingers.  There  are 
also  several  kinds  of  hand  seeders  on  the  market,  all  of  which 
broadcast  the  seed.  The  most  simple  kind  of  hand  seeder 
and  the  one  that  is  most  often  used  for  the  seeding  of  grass 
and  other  small  seed  is  one  with  a  rotating  distribution.  This 
seeder  consists  of  a  star-shaped  wheel,  which  is  given  a  rapid 
rotation  by  gearing  from  a  crank.  A  bag  is  provided  with 
straps  which  may  be  carried  from  the  shoulder  and  the 
distributing  device  placed  at  the  bottom.  The  seeder  is 
confined  principally  to  small  areas  and  often  used  in  the 
seeding  of  lawns. 

Watering  of  the  Seedlings. — Watering  is  seldom  done  prop- 
erly by  the  amateur,  and  in  many  cases  this  is  the  cause  of 
failure.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  definite  rules  which  can 
be  followed,  but  a  few  suggestions  might  be  offered  which  will 


THINNING  OF  PLANTS  51 

give  some  aid :  Water  only  when  the  ground  seems  to  need 
it  is  an  excellent  rule.  But  this  rule  can  only  be  followed 
by  one  with  some  experience,  because  this  is  the  only  way  the 
need  can  be  definitely  known.  Seed,  as  well  as  seedlings,  are 
often  injured  by  too  much  watering.  It  is  not  well  to  apply 
water  too  often,  but  rather  to  let  the  plant  feel  the  need  of 
moisture  by  slightly  wilting. 

The  best  time  to  water  is  between  sunset  and  sunrise,  and 
the  seedlings  should  usually  be  watered  in  the  early  part  of 
the  day  before  the  sun  appears.  This  is  important,  because 
as  a  rule  if  the  plants  go  through  the  night  in  a  damp  condition 
they  are  more  subject  to  the  attack  of  diseases.  A  damp 
atmosphere  with  a  wet  soil  will  be  a  combination  that  only 
the  hardiest  seedlings  can  stand  if  long  continued,  and  a 
saturated  condition  of  the  air  and  soil,  especially  if  accom- 
panied by  undue  heat,  surely  invites  the  attack  of  the  damp- 
ing-off  fungus.  Single  copious  waterings  are  much  better 
than  several  scanty  sprinklings.  Frequent  sprinklings  cause 
the  surface  to  become  crusted  and  hard,  while  the  roots  may 
be  suffering  from  thirst.  Moreover,  such  watering  brings  the 
tender  roots  to  the  surface,  which  is  an  undesirable  condition. 
As  soon  as  the  soil  dries  sufficiently  after  watering  it  should 
be  cultivated  and  a  dust  mulch  maintained.  This  introduces 
air  and  liberates  plant  food,  which  stimulates  plant  growth. 
The  appearance  of  mould  on  a  seed-bed  is  a  sure  sign  that  the 
soil  is  too  wet.  Tall,  spindling  seedlings  with  light  green 
foliage  indicates  too  much  water  and  too  high  a  temperature. 
Watering  must  not  be  applied  to  the  seedlings  forcibly,  since 
it  has  a  tendency  to  wash  them  out  of  the  soil  as  well  as 
causing  a  crust  to  form,  both  of  which  are  extremely  detri- 
mental to  the  production  of  good  plants. 

Thinning  of  Plants. — After  planting  seed  of  many  crops 
it  is  usually  found  that  more  have  grown  than  can  be  allowed 
to  stand,  and  that  the  process  of  thinning  will  have  to  be 
practised  in  order  to  reduce  the  number.  Such  thinning  can 
be  made  of  great  value  if  properly  done,  since  it  is  a  most 
excellent  means  of  practising  plant  selection.  The  poorest 
and  the  weakest  seedlings  should  always  be  pulled  out  and 
discarded,  and  only  those  plants  which  have  good  vitality 
should  be  retained  and  permitted  to  grow. 


52  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 

Thinning  is  not  only  done  to  give  the  plants  more  room  to 
expand  and  to  grow,  but  also  to  provide  them  with  sufficient 
space  from  which  to  gather  plant  food.  It  should  therefore 
be  done  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  plants  are  up.  The  early 
elimination  of  the  surplus  plants  prevents  any  loss  of  the 
available  food. 

Thinning  is  accomplished  in  several  ways  according  to  the 
crop :  (1)  By  weeders  or  implements  designed  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  out  the  surplus  plants,  and  (2)  by  hand.  Hand 
thinning  is  usually  practised  on  such  plants  as  the  garden 
beet  or  the  onion. 

Transplanting  of  Seedlings. — One  of  the  principal  reasons 
for  the  transplanting  of  the  seedling  is  to  develop  a  good  root 
system.  An  ideal  root  system  is  one  that  has  a  great  number 
of  short  branches,  bearing  many  small  root  hairs.  Such  a 
root  system  provides  a  large  area  for  the  absorption  of  food 
material  in  a  comparatively  small  space.  An  expression  for 
this  condition  often  used  by  gardeners  is  "ball  of  root," 
which  means  a  well-developed  and  compact  root  system. 
The  formation  of  this  ball  takes  place  only  after  the  seedling 
has  been  transplanted  several  times.  It  is  formed  when  the 
larger  roots  are  broken  off,  which  causes  them  to  branch  and 
to  make  a  number  of  small  fibrous  roots.  The  root  system 
then  is  a  network  of  fine  root  hairs,  all  of  which  take  food 
from  the  soil.  Such  a  root  system  is  easiest  and  is  most  readily 
obtained  by  the  root  pruning  which  takes  place  during 
transplantings.  With  many  plants  repeated  transplantings 
are  an  advantage.  The  first  transplanting  is  most  important. 
It  consists  in  the  pricking  of  the  seedlings  out  of  the  seed 
bed.  Several  precautions  must  be  observed,  of  which  the 
most  important  one  is  the  preparatory  treatment  of  the  seed- 
lings before  transplanting.  A  few  days  previous  to  the  time 
the  plants  are  to  be  taken  up,  withhold  the  water  supply 
and  ventilate  the  plants  freely  to  harden  the  tissue  of  the 
seedlings  if  they  have  been  grown  in  a  hot-bed  or  cold  frame. 
An  hour  or  two  previous  to  the  transplanting  of  the  seedlings 
give  them  an  abundance  of  water.  In  removing  the  plants 
from  the  seed-bed  avoid  injury  to  the  roots,  and  in  resetting 
them  pack  the  soil  firmly  about  the  roots  so  that  they  will 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  53 

quickly  take  hold  of  the  soil.  Usually  shading  of  the  plants 
for  a  day  or  so  to  prevent  withering  after  transplanting  is 
important.  The  plants  should  be  set  in  the  soil  nearly  up 
to  the  first  leaf,  which  enables  them  to  take  root  more  deeply 
and  thus  to  be  better  able  to  withstand  drought.  In  the  trans- 
planting of  seedlings  to  the  open,  after  they  have  attained 
some  size,  account  must  be  taken  of  the  loss  of  a  part  of  the 
root  system.  The  balance  between  the  leaves  and  the  roots 
is  now  broken.  It  is  apparent  that  in  transplanting  some 
roots  are  always  lost,  which  causes  the  leaf  surface  to  be  in 
excess  of  that  of  the  root  system.  For  this  reason  it  is  always 
advisable  to  reduce  the  leaf  surface,  so  that  it  will  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  root  system,  thus  maintaining  the  equilibrium 
or  the  balance  of  the  plant  as  near  as  possible.  From  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  of  the  leaf  surface  is  usually  removed. 
Where  it  is  possible  it  is  usually  never  advisable  to  trans- 
plant seedlings  immediately  after  a  rain,  because  the  ground 
is  then  in  a  poor  condition,  and  it  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
firmed  about  the  roots  of  the  plant.  The  baking  of  the  soil 
and  the  formation  of  a  hard  crust  is  the  result  when  working 
with  a  soil  that  is  too  wet.  After  transplanting  the  ground 
should  be  thoroughly  cultivated  at  the  first  opportunity.  A 
mulch  of  dry  soil  should  be  maintained  over  the  surface. 

Sometimes  plants  are  grown  and  transplanted  into  small 
pots.  Thumb  pots,  the  smallest  size,  are  selected  for  the 
first  transplanting  and  later  the  plants  are  gradually  shifted 
to  larger  sizes.  The  soil  should  be  comparatively  rich,  the 
aim  being  at  this  time  to  develop,  as  soon  as  possible,  a 
compact  root  system  before  transplanting  in  the  field.  Pots 
are  used  in  order  that  a  severe  check  to  the  plant  will  be 
avoided. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  three  parts  compose  a  seed? 

2.  What   is   germination?     What   two   stages    mark   the   beginning    of 
germination? 

3.  Name  three  external  requisites  for  germination. 

4.  What  function  has  water  on  the  germination  of  a  seed? 

5.  What  is  gained  by  the  soaking  of  a  seed? 

6.  What  results  when  seed  are  kept  permanently  wet? 

7.  Why  is  oxygen  necessary  for  the  germination  of  a  seed? 


54  SEED  AND  ITS  NEEDS 

8.  Why  must  the  soil  be  aerated  for  good  plant  growth? 

9.  Give  two  ways  in  which  oxygen  can  be  secured  for  the  seed. 

10.  What  three  temperatures  are  recognized  in  the  germination  of  seed? 

11.  What  are  the  five  processes  of  germination? 

12.  Name  the  internal  conditions  affecting  germination. 

13.  What  is  meant  by  maturity  of  a  seed? 

14.  Discuss  two  ways  a  seed  may  be  unsound. 

15.  Is  germinative  energy  important  to  the  seed? 

16.  What  are  hard  seeds?     How  is  the  defect  remedied? 

17.  What  is  seed  testing  and  of  what  value  is  it  to  the  grower? 

18.  Describe  four  kinds  of  seed  testers. 

19.  What  type  of  soil  is  preferred  for  the  seed-bed? 

20.  What  determines  the  depth  to  which  seed  should  be  planted? 

21.  Discuss  the  compacting  of  the  soil  about  the  seed. 

22.  What  determines  the  proper  time  to  plant  seeds? 

23.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  thin  plants? 

24.  What  is  a  seed-bed,  and  why  is  it  important  to  have  it  well  prepared? 

25.  What  two  methods  are  used  in  sowing  of  seed? 

26.  Why  does  shade  assist  the  seedling  to  start  growth? 

27.  Discuss  the  watering  of  seedlings. 

28.  Discuss  transplanting  of  seedlings. 


CHAPTE_R  III. 
HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME. 

THE  hot-bed  and  the  cold  frame  is  a  very  important  and  a 
very  necessary  adjunct  to  the  commercial  as  well  as  to  the 
home  garden.  Few  people  realize  the  importance  of  some 
form  of  glass.  It  is  not  only  important  in  connection  with 
the  production  of  early  plants  but  also  valuable  for  the  grow- 
ing to  maturity  of  lettuce  and  radishes,  either  early  in  the 
spring  or  late  in  the  fall.  Glass  is  regarded  as  being  prac- 
tically indispensable  for  many  garden  operations.  In  certain 
sections  of  the  country  it  is  a  positive  necessity,  especially 
where  certain  crops  are  grown,  as,  for  example,  the  tomato 
or  the  pepper. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  glass  for  the  forcing  of  early 
vegetables  it  is  valuable  for  the  winter  protection  of  partially 
hardy  plants.  The  greatest  economic  use  is  probably  in  the 
hastening  of  the  growth  of  certain  crops  as  well  as  extending 
the  growing  period  of  others. 

HOT-BEDS. 

The  advantages  of  hotbeds  may  be  summed  up  briefly 
under  the  following  heads:  (1)  Crops  can  be  matured  and 
harvested  earlier,  thus  gaining  the  advantage  of  better 
prices.  (2)  By  starting  plants  under  glass  two  or  more  crops 
may  be  grown  on  the  same  land  during  a  growing  season. 

(3)  In  sections  of  the  country  where  the  growing  season  is 
short,  such  crops  as  tomatoes,  melons  and  peppers  can  only 
be  successfully  matured  by  starting  the  plants  in  the  hotbed. 

(4)  Where  the  plants  are  large  when  they  are  set  in  the  field, 
there  is  less  danger  of  loss  by  insects  and  diseases,  as  well  as 
less  injury  from  weeds.     (5)  Because  of  the  longer  growing 
season  afforded  some  crops,  larger  yields  are  obtained. 


56  HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME 

Location. — In  the  selection  of  a  location  for  a  hot-bed  several 
factors  should  be  considered.  Since  it  is  very  important  that 
the  seeds  and  the  seedlings  should  not  suffer  from  the  lack  of 
water,  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  frames  in  close  proximity 
to  a  good  supply  of  available  water.  This  cannot  be  over- 
emphasized, because  the  failure  of  many  crops  to  be  profitable 
is  due  to  the  lack  of  water  during  the  early  part  of  their 
growth. 

Hot-beds  should  be  placed  so  as  to  be  protected  from  severe 
cold  winds.  Usually  the  cold  winds  are  from  the  north  or 
the  west,  and  care  should  be  used  to  see  that  the  frames 
are  protected  on  these  sides.  Windbreaks  afford  the  most 
common  as  well  as  the  most  economical  protection,  and  where 
it  is  possible  natural  wind-breaks,  such  as  hills,  trees  or 
wooded  areas,  should  be  utilized.  When  these  natural 
wind-breaks  are  not  available  a  board  fence,  five  or  six  feet 
high,  can  be  constructed,  or  a  location  might  be  selected  back 
of  some  outbuildings,  such  as  granaries  or  buggy  sheds. 

Exposure. — It  is  conceded  by  all  growers  that  the  south 
or  southeast  exposures  are  to  be  preferred  over  all  others. 
This  aspect  allows  the  frames  to  have  the  full  benefit  of  the 
sun's  rays  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  it  is  most  needed.  The 
frames  should  run  parallel  with  each  other  so  as  to  facilitate 
in  the  handling  of  the  glass.  Roads  or  alley-ways  should 
be  constructed  between  the  frames  so  as  to  be  more  con- 
venient when  composting  the  manure  and  when  filling 
the  beds. 

Hot-bed  Pit. — Most  of  the  hot-beds  are  heated  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  manures,  and  for  this  reason  a  pit  or  a  hole  in 
the  ground  is  necessary.  Good  drainage  in  the  pit  is  an 
absolute  essential,  and  where  natural  drainage  is  poor  some 
artificial  means  of  removing  any  surplus  water  must  be 
provided.  In  many  soils  artificial  drainage  is  unnecessary, 
but  occasionally  some  artificial  means  of  drawing  off  the 
surplus  water  is  necessary.  Two  ways  of  providing  good 
drainage  is  either  by  the  use  of  4-inch  tile  laid  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pit  or  by  placing  6  inches  of  cinders  or  coarse  gravel 
in  the  bottom  before  the  compost  is  thrown  in  the  pit.  Owing 
to  the  uncertainty  of  the  weather  in  the  spring  it  is  usually 


HOT-BEDS  57 

advisable  to  dig  the  pit  in  the  fall  before  the  ground  is  frozen 
and  fill  it  with  leaves  or  with  coarse  manure. 

The  size  of  the  pit  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  hot-bed, 
and  whether  it  is  for  home  use  or  for  commercial  purposes. 
In  either  case  the  size  of  the  pit  should  be  just  a  trifle  larger 
than  the  frame,  so  the  frame  will  fit  into  it  snugly. 

The  depth  of  the  pit  depends  upon  several  factors:  (1) 
Latitude:  The  section  of  the  country  or  the  latitude  deter- 
mines the  depth  to  a  large  degree,  because  the  inside  heat  of 
the  frame  is  materially  influenced  by  the  external  tem- 
perature. (2)  The  time  of  the  year:  When  crops  are  started 
late  in  the  season,  as  for  example  in  March  or  April,  less 
heat  and  consequently  less  depth  in  the  pit  is  required  than 
if  the  plants  are  started  in  February  or  earlier.  (3)  The  kind 
of  a  crop :  Certain  plants  known  as  tender  or  warm-weather 
plants,  such  as  the  tomato,  pepper  or  egg-plant,  require  con- 
siderably more  heat  than  the  more  hardy  plants,  as  the 
cabbage  or  the  lettuce.  Therefore  the  pit  must  of  necessity 
be  deeper,  to  supply  the  proper  amount  of  heat  to  grow  the 
warm  plants  successfully.  In  the  North  the  customary  depth 
varies  from  15  to  36  inches.  The  depth  gradually  decreases 
as  one  goes  south,  where  it  ranges  from  6  to  12  inches.  The 
heating  material  which  is  used  and  the  length  of  time  the 
hot-bed  will  be  needed  also  influences  its  depth. 

Hot-bed  Frame. — Five  materials  are  prominent  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  frame:  (1)  wood,  (2)  concrete,  (3)  stone, 
(4)  brick  and  (5)  cement  blocks.  Concrete  is  without  a 
doubt  the  most  durable  as  well  as  the  neatest,  although  wood 
is  more  generally  used  because  of  its  cheapness.  If  wood  is 
used  it  is  advisable  to  secure  cedar,  locust  or  cypress,  since 
these  woods  are  the  most  durable  and  will  withstand  the 
trying  conditions  under  which  the  frame  is  placed.  The 
frame  should  be  made  to  fit  the  pit.  The  length  should  be 
determined  by  the  needs  of  the  grower.  The  usual  width  is 
6  feet,  because  the  standard  size  of  the  sash  is  3  x  6  feet. 
It  is  always  more  convenient  to  have  the  width  of  the 
frame  about  one-half  inch  less  than  the  length  of  the  sash. 
The  upper  side  of  the  frame,  should  be  6  to  8  inches  higher 
than  the  lower  side  so  as  to  give  the  proper  slope  to  the  frame.  < 


58 


HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME 


When  the  frame  is  made  of  wood,  crossbars  should  be  pro- 
vided because  they  possess  many  advantages.  The  chief  use 
of  the  crossbars  is  to  strengthen  and  to  prevent  the  frames 
from  warping  or  twisting  out  of  shape  when  they  are  in 


FIG.  12. — A  cross-section  of  a  concrete  hot- bed. 

contact  with  the  moist  earth.  The  crossbar  should  be  made 
of  a  piece  of  wood  2x3  inches.  It  should  be  of  the  best 
material.  The  crossbars  should  be  placed  with  the  greatest 


FIG.  13. — Showing  the  method  of  constructing  a  concrete  hot-bed.     Note  the 
framework  which  is  necessary. 


care  and  precision,  because  if  they  are  too  close  together  the 
sash  will  bind  and  cause  great  annoyance.  The  distance  from 
center  to  center  of  the  crossbars  should  be  one-half  inch  more 
than  the  width  of  the  sash  to  ensure  ease  in  manipulation. 


HOT-BEDS 


59 


Hot-bed  Sash. — Two  kinds  of  hot-bed  sash  can  be  pur- 
chased, the  single-glass  and  the  double-glass  sash.  They 
can  also  be  made  by  any  local  firm.  When  the  sash  are 
constructed  locally,  specify  emphatically  that  only  the 
most  durable  wood  should  be  used  and  cypress  or  cedar 
is  preferred.  Sash  differ  greatly  in  length  and  in  width, 
but  the  standard  size  is  3  x  6  feet.  Sash  of  other  sizes 
are  inconvenient  to  handle  and  possess  no  advantages 
over  the  standard.  The  usual  thickness  of  the  sash  is 
about  1J  inches,  but  this  varies,  and  usually  ranges  from 
If  to  2  inches.  The  lighter  sash  are  easier  to  handle,  but 
the  heavier  ones  are  more  durable  and  sustain  less  breakage. 


FIG.  14. — A  good  rack  for  hot-bed  sash. 

All  sash  should  receive  a  priming  coat  of  paint  before 
they  are  glazed.  The  cracks  and  the  crevices  should  be 
filled  with  paint  in  order  to  exclude  all  water,  so  that  decay 
will  be  lessened.  Glass  of  the  best  quality  should  be  pur- 
chased. The  lower  grades  of  glass,  as  a  rule,  cause  more 
burning  to  the  plants  because  of  their  many  defects. 

The  glass  is  placed  into  the  frames  by  either  lapping  or 
by  butting.  Lapping  is  the  most  popular  and  the  method 
that  is  usually  recommended,  because  there  is  less  leakage 


60  HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME 

and  less  trouble  with  the  panes  slipping  down.  The  glass 
should  be  lapped  about  |  inch  and  laid  in  putty.  Each 
pane  of  glass  should  be  fastened  by  glazing  points,  and 
putty  pressed  in  the  angles  formed  by  the  glass  and  the 
sash  bars.  When  the  glass  is  butted  the  two  edges  of  the 
panes  are  simply  brought  together.  The  greatest  draw- 
back to  this  method  is  the  fact  that  the  glass  is  never  per- 
fectly square  and  the  panes  do  not  fit  together  tightly. 
The  cracks  thus  formed  between  the  two  panes  permit 
a  great  amount  of  leakage  to  occur  which  is  very  injurious 
to  the  growing  plants. 

After  the  sash  are  glazed  they  should  be  given  two  or 
three  coats  of  good  white-lead  paint.  This  painting  should 
be  repeated  at  least  once  a  year  throughout  the  life  of  the 
sash.  The  painting  materially  increases  the  length  of  time 
the  sash  can  be  used.  When  the  sash  are  not  in  use  they 
should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place  (Fig.  14) . 

A   FOUR-FRAME  HOT-BED. 

Fig.  15  represents  a  four-frame  hot-bed  and  a  convenient 
size  for  the  home  garden.  So  important  is  some  form  of 
glass  to  the  garden  that  no  vegetable  garden  is  complete 
without  a  two-  or  four-frame  hot-bed.  When  only  a  small 
city  lot  is  available  for  a  garden  the  hot-bed  can  be  made 
one-half  this  size. 

The  arrangement  of  the  crops  in  the  hot-bed  can  be  deter- 
mined by  the  individual,  but  Fig.  15  is  designed  to  give 
several  suggestions  which  might  help  the  novice  or  one  not 
very  familiar  with  this  form  of  gardening  to  fill  up  the 
space  to  the  best  advantage. 

In  this  plan  two  sash  are  given  over  to  the  growing  of 
lettuce  and  radishes  and  early  beets,  while  one  is  used  for 
the  production  of  the  early  plants  which  are  to  be  set 
in  the  garden.  The  fourth  is  used  for  the  transplanting  of 
the  seedlings,  in  order  that  large,  stocky  and  healthy  plants 
will  result.  The  first  transplanting  from  the  seed  bed  is 
essential  if  good  plants  are  desired,  because  it  not  only 
increases  the  root  system,  but  it  helps  the  plants  to  with- 


A  FOUR-FRAME  HOT-BED 


61 


PLAN   OF  FOUR-FRAME  HOT-BED. 


Onion  seed 


Beet  seed 


Cabbage  seed 


J,  Cauliflower  seed 


Celery  seed 


Egg  plant  seed 


J,  Pepper  seed 


Parsley  seed 


I  Endive  seed 


Lettuce  seed 


Cauliflower  plants 


Cabbage  plants 


Lettuce  plants 


Egg  plant  plants 


Pepper  plants 


Parsley  plants 


Endive  plants 


Tomato  plants 


Tomato  plants 


Tomato  plants 


Lettuce 
February  25  to  March  10 


Radishes  and  early  beets 
February  25  to  March  10 


FIG.  15 


62  HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME 

stand  the  more  severe  operation  when  they  are  set  in  the 
garden. 

If  only  a  two-frame  bed  is  made  the  space  allotted  to 
each  crop  can  be  reduced. 

The  double-glass  sash  are  not  to  be  generally  recommended 
for  the  following  reasons:  (1)  they  are  too  expensive;  (2) 
they  are  very  heavy  to  handle;  (3)  they  accumulate  and 
retain  moisture  between  the  two  layers  of  glass,  which 
causes  their  rapid  decay;  and  (4)  they  collect  dirt  and 
moisture  between  the  glasses,  which  decrease  the  amount  of 
light  that  can  pass  through  the  glass.  However,  it  must 
not  be  thought  that  the  double  glass  does  not  possess  some 
good  points.  The  advantages  of  the  double-glass  sash  may 
be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows:  (1)  a  growing  tempera- 
ture is  reached  earlier  in  the  day;  (2)  the  labor  of  managing 
the  frames  is  reduced;  and  (3)  the  plants  are  afforded  more 
thorough  protection  from  cold.  Although  the  double-glass 
sash  do  possess  certain  advantages,  the  disadvantages  seem 
to  overshadow  the  advantages,  and  they  cannot  be  generally 
recommended. 

Composting  the  Manure. — The  usual  material  for  heating 
the  hot-bed  is  horse  manure.  Sometimes  forest  leaves,  spent 
hops,  and  occasionally  sheep  and  poultry  manure  are  used, 
but  sheep  and  poultry  manures  are  usually  of  more  value 
for  other  purposes. 

The  horse  manure  should  consist  of  about  one-third  litter. 
When  the  solid  excrement  is  used  entirely  the  fermentation 
is  usually  too  violent,  and  consequently  of  too  short  a  dura- 
tion. Straw  is  the  best  material  for  the  litter,  and  manure 
composed  of  shavings  or  sawdust  should  never  be  used. 

The  manure  should  be  composted  before  it  is  placed  in 
the  pit.  The  composting  should  begin  about  ten  days  prior 
to  the  time  the  hot-beds  are  to  be  made.  The  manure  should 
first  be  piled  up  in  compost  heaps.  A  convenient  size  of 
the  compost  pile  is  4  or  5  feet  wide  and  about  as  high,  with 
length  enough  to  fill  the  frames.  After  the  heating  of  the 
compost  has  started  and  is  well  under  way,  say  two  or  three 
days  after  it  is  piled,  the  manure  must  be  turned  over, 
thoroughly  mixing  the  outside  of  the  pile  with  the  inside. 


A  FOUR-FRAME  HOT-BED 


63 


If  any  drying  out  of  the  compost  has  occurred  by  this 
time  the  addition  of  a  little  water  will  improve  the  compost. 
Two  or  three  such  handlings  of  the  compost  are  necessary 
to  give  it  a  uniform  and  an  even  fermentation.  When  the 
fermentation  is  complete  and  uniform  the  compost  is  placed 
in  the  pit. 


FIG.  16. — Students  filling  a  concrete  hot-bed. 


In  filling  the  pit  the  manure  should  be  distributed  in 
successive  layers  of  6  or  7  inches.  Each  layer  must  be  firmly 
packed  down,  particularly  along  the  sides  and  in  the  corners. 
When  the  firming  along  the  sides  is  neglected  there  is 
more  settling  of  the  compost  along  the  sides  than  in  the 
center  of  the  pit,  which  makes  the  surface  uneven  and  causes 
great  damage  to  the  young  seedlings.  The  compost  will 
settle  several  inches,  and  when  filling  the  pit  due  allow- 
ance should  be  made  for  this  setting.  After  the  compost  is 
placed  in  the  pit  from  2  to  6  inches  of  soil  should  be  spread 
over  the  manure.  If  the  plants  are  to  be  grown  injflats  2 
inches  of  soil  will  be  sufficient,  but  if  the  seed  is  to  be  sown 


64 


HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME 


1 


directly  in  the  beds  from  4  to  6  inches  of  good  garden  loam 

is  necessary. 

After  the  manure  has  been  placed  in  the  pit  a  secondary 

fermentation  will  take  place,  and  the  heat  will  often  rise 
as  high  as  100°  to  110°  F.    At  this  time 

r  •  i     it  would  be  very  detrimental  to  plant 

either  seeds  or  plants  in  the  soil,  and  a 
week  or  ten  days  should  lapse  after  the 
hotbed  is  made  before  any  planting  is 
done.  This  secondary  heating  continues 
for  a  longer  or  a  shorter  period,  and 
gradually  falls  until  it  reaches  65°  to  75° 
F.,  where  it  remains  more  or  less  con- 
stant throughout  the  life  of  the  hotbed. 
By  placing  a  soil  thermometer  in  the  bed 
it  is  easy  to  determine  the  proper  time  to 
plant,  which  will  vary  from  a  few  days 
to  a  couple  of  weeks,  depending  upon 
the  depth  of  the  pit,  the  freshness  of  the 
manure  and  several  other  factors. 


COLD   FRAME. 

A  cold  frame  is  a  bed  covered  with  glass 
where  no  heat  is  provided  except  the 
ffiEir-f  sun's  rays.    All  the  conditions,  such  as 

the  location,  the  arrangement,  the  man- 
agement, etc.,  that  are  recommended  for 
ij  hot-beds  apply  with  equal  force  to  cold 

y  frames.    The  cold  frame,  as  a  rule,  is  used 

later  in  the  season  than  the  hot-bed.     No 

Lpit  is  required  for  the  cold  frame.  It 
J  simply  consists  of  a  wooden  frame  placed 
on  top  of  the  soil.  Occasionally  manure 
is  piled  around  the  sides  of  the  frame  to 
offer  a  little  protection.  The  cold  frame 
is  usually  employed  for  the  "hardening  off"  of  plants  later 
in  the  season,  but  on  a  small  scale  the  hot-bed  will  serve 
this  purpose.  As  a  rule  the  cold  frame  requires  more 


FIG.  17. — A  soil  ther- 
mometer. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS 


65 


water,  because  the  plants  are  grown  later  in  the  season, 
when  transpiration  and  evaporation  are  greater. 


FIG.  18. — A  cross-section  of  a  cold  frame. 

The  cold  frame  has  a  few  advantages  over  the  hot-bed. 
It  is  more  cheaply  constructed,  it  requires  no  heating  mate- 
rials and  needs  no  excavation.  However,  the  cold  frame 
cannot  be  used  as  early  in  the  season  as  the  hot-bed,  and 
it  should  only  supplement  the  hot-bed  and  not  replace  it. 

The  frames  may  be  movable  or  stationary.  Portable 
frames  are  not,  as  a  rule,  popular  with  the  larger  growers 
and  the  stationary  frames  seem  to  give  the  best  satisfaction. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

Why  are  hot-beds  and  cold  frames  important? 

Give  four  advantages  of  a  hot-bed. 

Discuss  the  location  of  a  hot-bed. 

What  is  the  value  of  a  wind-break  for  a  hot-bed? 

What  is  the  distinction  between  a  natural  and  an  artificial  wind-break? 

What  exposures  are  preferred  for  the  hot-bed? 

Describe  the  hot-bed  pit. 

What  is  the  standard  size  of  the  hot-bed  sash? 

Name  the  five  materials  of  which  the  frame  is  made. 

How  much  higher  must  the  upper  side  of  the  frame  be  than  the  lower 

What  is  the  value  of  crossbars? 

What  kinds  of  hot-bed  sash  are  made? 

Give  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  each  kind. 

Discuss  the  two  ways  of  placing  glass  in  the  frames. 

Which  method  is  the  best? 

Why  is  it  important  to  have  all  frames  well  painted? 

Name  four  advantages  and  three  disadvantages  of  the  double-glass 


18.  What  is  meant  by  a  compost? 

19.  How  should  the  manure  be  composted,  and  how  long  does  it  usually 
take? 

5 


9. 

10. 
side? 

11. 
.  12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 


66  HOT-BED  AND  COLD  FRAME 

20.  What  kind  of  manure  should  be  used  for  the  hot-bed? 

21.  What  is  the  proper  way  of  placing  the  composted  manure  in  the  pit? 

22.  Why  is  it  important  to  have  the  manure  firmly  tramped  down? 

23.  What  is  secondary  fermentation  and  how  high  does  the  temperature 
go? 

24.  How  long  after  the  hot-bed  has  been  made  before  the  seeds  can  be 
planted? 

25.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  cold  frame  and  a  hot-bed? 


CHAPTER  IV.    • 
CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE. 

CULTIVATION  is  the  process  of  either  breaking  up  the 
soil  for  the  purpose  of  planting  agricultural  crops  or  stir- 
ring it  to  accelerate  plant  growth.  Cultivation  for  the 
improvement  of  the  crop  should  be  continued  at  frequent 
intervals  during  the  growing  period  of  every  crop.  The 
importance  of  cultivation  cannot  be  overestimated  and  the 
efficiency  with  which  it  is  done  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
tools  used,  and  how  skilfully  the  operator  uses  them.  Much 
importance  is  laid  upon  the  way  in  which  cultivation  is 
done,  because  often  the  difference  between  profit  and  loss 
is  found  in  either  good  or  bad  cultivation.  Good  cultiva- 
tion is  one  of  the  secrets  of  success  in  all  kinds  of  agricul- 
tural work,  and  it  is  even  more  important  in  crops  that  are 
grown  intensively,  as  are  most  of  the  horticultural  crops. 
Horticultural  crops  require  a  great  amount  of  attention  to 
produce  the  maximum  yield  and  the  highest  quality.  Cul- 
tivation goes  a  long  way  in  bringing  about  these  good  results. 

It  is  important  that  cultivation  should  be  done  at  the 
proper  time,  and  much  depends  upon  the  character  and  the 
thoroughness  of  the  operations.  There  is  always  a  proper 
time  to  perform  a  piece  of  work  and  cultivation  is  no  excep- 
tion to  this  rule,  and  things  worth  doing  at  all  are  worth 
doing  well.  Cultivation  when  properly  done  should  make 
the  soil  loose  and  friable,  and  all  of  the  large  lumps  should 
be  broken  up. 

The  failure  to  cultivate  the  garden  at  the  proper  time 
often  results  in  the  weeds  overrunning  the  plants,  which 
not  only  reduces  the  yield,  but  causes  great  labor  and 
unnecessary  expense  in  hand  hoeing  and  in  weeding.  When 
the  conditions  of  the  soil  are  satisfactory  for  cultivation,  it 


68  CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE 

should  be  attended  to  at  once,  because  if  it  is  delayed  many 
circumstances  may  arise  to  hinder  the  work. 

Tillage  is  the  most  efficient  means  of  assisting  nature  in 
converting  the  plant  food  into  forms  that  are  available 
to  the  plants.  One  of  the  most  noticeable  results  of  cultiva- 
tion is  the  fineness  of  the  soil  particles  which  is  accomplished 
by  the  breaking  up  of  the  larger  lumps.  This  pulverization 
of  the  soil  is  very  beneficial,  because  it  makes  it  easier  for 
the  roots  of  the  plants  to  penetrate  to  a  greater  depth  and 
to  feed  over  a  larger  area.  The  tender  rootlets  must  push 
their  way  in  between  the  soil  grains,  because  it  is  impossible 
for  them  to  penetrate  hard  lumps  of  soil,  and  where  large 
clods  of  earth  are  abundant  the  growth  of  the  plants  is 
materially  checked. 

Objects  of  Cultivation. — Some  of  the  reasons  for  cultiva- 
tion may  be  summed  up  briefly  as  follows:  (1)  Cultivation 
reduces  the  soil  particles  to  a  fine  state  of  division,  which 
modifies  its  physical  make-up.  This  pulverization  of  the 
soil  particles  is  highly  important  in  that  plant  growth 
demands  a  soil  that  is  fine  because  it  usually  will  be  able 
to  hold  more  water.  (2)  Cultivation  helps  to  regulate  the 
water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  This  is  brought  about 
by  the  greater  number  of  soil  particles  which  are  found  in 
a  given  area.  Since  the  amount  of  water  that  a  soil  can 
hold  is  determined  by  the  film  of  water  that  surrounds 
each  soil  particle,  it  is  evident  that  the  greater  the  number 
of  soil  particles  that  occupy  a  given  space,  the  greater  will 
be  the  amount  of  water  that  it  can  hold.  (3)  Cultivation 
modifies  the  soil  temperature.  When  air  is  permitted  to 
permeate  the  soil,  it  carries  with  it  heat  and  warmth  to  a 
lower  depth.  The  heat  units  entrapped  in  the  soil  causes 
the  temperature  to  be  higher  and  the  growth  to  be  more 
rapid.  (4)  Cultivation  stimulates  the  increased  production 
of  beneficial  bacteria.  (5)  Cultivation  aerates  the  soil.  If 
the  soil  particles  are  stirred  around,  and  finely  broken  up, 
there  is  bound  to  be  a  greater  number  of  soil  spaces,  and 
consequently  there  must  be  more  air,  since  the  space 
between  each  soil  particle  is  necessarily  filled  with  air.  (6) 
Cultivation  destroys  weeds.  (7)  Cultivation  prevents  the 


SHALLOW  AND  DEEP  CULTIVATION  69 

washing  of  the  soil.  By  filling  up  the  little  gulleys  and  the 
ditches,  which  are  washed  out  during  a  rain,  they  are  pre- 
vented from  increasing  in  size,  and  thus  washing  to  an 
appreciable  extent  is  avoided.  (8)  Cultivation  increases 
the  depth  of  the  seed  bed.  (9)  Cultivation  offers  a  means  of 
adding  green  manures  and  humus  to  the  soil.  (10)  Cul- 
tivation liberates  plant  food.  This  is  an  excellent  means  of 
freeing  plant  food,  because  the  stirring  of  the  soil  particles, 
brings  together  the  different  elements.  Chemical  action  is 
thus  increased  and  the  plant  food  is  liberated,  which  was 
previously  held  in  combination,  with  the  other  elements  that 
were  not  available  to  the  plant. 

Shallow  and  Deep  Cultivation. — The  depth  to  which  a  soil 
can  be  plowed  in  order  to  give  the  best  results  must  neces- 
sarily vary  with  the  condition  and  the  type  of  soil.  On  a 
clay  soil  or  any  soil  of  a  heavy  type,  deep  plowing,  as  a 
rule,  should  be  recommended,  while  on  the  sandy  or  sandy 
loam  types  of  soil,  deep  plowing  is  not  usually  advisable, 
especially  if  the  soil  is  plowed  in  the  spring.  It  is  con- 
ceded that  the  longer  a  soil  is  cultivated,  the  deeper  and 
the  more  thoroughly  it  should  be  pulverized.  The  depth  of 
plowing  is  also  regulated  by  the  season,  the  location  and 
the  time  of  plowing.  Land  that  has  been  cropped  for  a 
series  of  years  should  be  plowed  deeper  than  new  land,  but 
this  varies  somewhat,  according  to  the  section  of  the  coun- 
try. It  has  also  been  found  that  deep  plowing  will  give 
better  results  if  it  is  done  in  the  fall.  The  depth  of  plowing 
should  fluctuate  with  different  years,  one  year  a  little  shal- 
low, and  the  next  year  a  little  deeper,  and  so  on.  If  one 
depth  is  maintained  continuously  the  pressure  of  the  imple- 
ments in  time  produces  a  hard  bottom  to  the  furrow,  which 
greatly  interferes  with  plant  growth.  In  regions  of  light 
rainfall,  deep  plowing  should  only  be  done  at  intervals  of 
from  four  to  five  years.  However,  when  the  rainfall  is 
about  the  average  for  a  good  crop,  deep  plowing  should 
usually  be  the  rule  on  heavy  soils. 

Shallow  cultivation  should  be  given,  as  the  crops  advance, 
and  a  mulch  of  fine  earth  should  be  kept  on  the  soil.  Where 
frequent  cultivation  is  followed,  the  capillary  tubes  near  the 


70  CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE 

surface  of  the  soil  are  broken  and  the  direct  connection 
of  the  water  in  the  subsoil  with  that  of  the  upper  layer 
is  interrupted.  Cultivating  prevents  the  close  contact  of 
the  surface  soil  with  that  of  the  lower  layers  and  destroys 
the  passageways  for  the  water  to  escape  into  the  air  and 
be  lost.  Whenever  evaporation  from  a  surface  takes  place, 
there  is  a  constant  movement  of  the  water  upward  from 
the  lower  depths,  and  in  order  to  conserve  the  supply  of 
water  this  capillary  escape  of  moisture  must  be  prevented. 
This  is  easily  accomplished  by  maintaining  a  layer  of  fine 
earth  on  the  soil.  This  means  that  shallow  cultivation  is 
important  in  conserving  and  in  holding  the  soil  moisture. 
The  depth  of  the  soil  mulch  must  of  necessity  vary  with 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  On  a  small  scale,  a  garden  rake 
can  be  used  and  the  pulverization  is  usually  complete,  but 
on  a  large  scale  a  disk  or  a  harrow  is  commonly  employed. 
If  a  disk  harrow  is  used  the  disks  should  be  set  at  an  angle. 
The  surface  cultivation  should  be  2  or  3  inches  in  depth. 
The  finer  the  soil  is  on  the  surface,  the  better  the  moisture 
is  held.  Shallow  surface  cultivation  should  be  practised 
in  connection  with  any  method  of  treating  the  land,  whether 
deep  plowing,  subsoiling  or  spading. 

Water-holding  Capacity  of  the  Soil  Influenced  by  Cultivation. 
— Cultivation  not  only  increases  the  amount  of  surface  on 
which  the  plant  can  feed,  but  it  also  enlarges  the  water 
supply  by  giving  the  soil  a  greater  capacity  for  holding  it. 

There  are  three  forms  of  water  found  in  a  soil:  (1)  Bot- 
tom water  is  that  water  which  stands  in  the  soil  at  a  general 
level  and  completely  fills  all  of  the  spaces  between  the  soil 
particles.  Bottom  water  is  only  available  for  the  plants, 
when  it  can  be  brought  up  to  the  higher  levels  by  capil- 
larity. If  the  general  level  of  the  water  table  is  too  high 
plants  cannot  grow,  and  drainage  must  be  provided.  (2) 
Capillary  water,  which  is  that  water  held  in  a  thin  film 
around  the  particles  of  soil  above  the  bottom  water.  The 
height  to  which  this  water  can  be  raised  by  capillary  action 
depends  upon  the  size  and  the  arrangement  of  the  soil 
particles  as  well  as  the  type  of  soil.  Ordinarily  the  capillary 
action  of  the  water  is  confined  to  a  few  feet.  In  close 


CAPACITY  OF  SOIL  INFLUENCED  BY  CULTIVATION     71 

texture  soils,  as  the  clays,  an  increase  in  the  air  spaces 
results  in  an  increase  of  the  capillary  spaces,  and  conse- 
quently an  increase  in  the  water-holding  capacity.  In 
the  coarse  sandy  soils  an  increase  in  the  size  of  the  air  spaces 
decreases  the  capillary  spaces  and  consequently  decreases 
the  water-holding  capacity.  (3)  Hygroscopic  water  is  that 
water  which  is  held  mechanically  in  the  soil  and  which  is  not 
removed  by  air  drying.  This  form  of  water  cannot  be  used 
by  the  plant. 

All  plants  are  dependent  upon  the  capillary  water  for 
their  growth.  The  amount  of  capillary  water  which  a 
soil  can  hold  depends  upon  the  total  surface  area  repre- 
sented by  the  soil  particles.  It  is  therefore  apparent  that 
the  loosening  of  the  ground  and  the  breaking  up  of  the 
soil  particles  during  cultivation  makes  it  easier  for  the 
rain  to  enter  the  soil.  Likewise  the  larger  surface  presented 
by  the  greater  number  of  soil  particles,  increases  the  amount 
of  water  that  the  soil  will  hold.  The  loose  soil  also  tends 
to  prevent  loss  of  the  water  by  surface  drainage. 

The  capillarity  and  consequently  the  moisture  content  of 
the  soil  is  materially  influenced  by  the  different  methods 
of  cultivation,  such  as  deep  or  shallow  plowing,  subsoiling, 
rolling  or  disking.  The  treatment  adapted  to  insure  the 
best  water  supply,  must  vary  with  the  rainfall,  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  and  the  crop  in  question.  In  many  sections 
the  rainfall  is  ample  to  produce  a  good  crop,  but  it  is  dis- 
tributed so  unevenly  that  all  of  the  water  cannot  be  utilized 
by  the  crop  at  the  time  it  falls.  A  great  amount  of  this 
water  is  lost  if  it  is  not  properly  handled  and  stored  in  the 
subsoil  for  the  future  use  of  the  plants.  By  judicious  and 
systematic  cultivation  the  greater  percentage  of  this  mois- 
ture can  be  conserved  and  used  for  the  growing  of  the 
plants.  Cultivating  after  a  rain  is  most  essential  for  the 
proper  conservation  of  the  soil  moisture.  This  cultivation 
should  be  given  as  soon  after  the  rain  as  the  soil  can  be 
worked.  When  evaporation  is  allowed  to  take  place  after 
a  rain,  there  is  not  only  a  loss  of  water  which  has  just  fallen, 
but  there  is  a  loss  in  the  upper  layer  of  soil  as  well.  In 
addition  to  these  losses  there  may  also  be  a  loss  of  the  water 


72  CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE 

in  the  subsoil  by  translocation.  The  best  means  of  pre- 
venting the  loss  of  water  is  by  cultivating  the  ground  with 
implements  that  will  break  up  the  soil  as  soon  as  possible 
after  a  rain  has  fallen.  Such  a  cultivation  at  the  proper 
time  will  leave  the  surface  in  a  fine  condition  and  will  check 
the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  ground. 

If  the  subsoil  contains  an  ample  amount  of  water,  and 
there  is  a  minimum  amount  in  the  surface  soil,  a  movement 
of  the  subsoil  water  after  a  rain  frequently  occurs.  This 
movement  is  brought  about  by  the  capillarity  of  the  soil, 
and  the  surface  tension  of  the  film  of  water  about  each  soil 
particle  becomes  greater  with  the  increase  of  the  water  in 
the  surface  soil. 


FIG.    19. — A  general  purpose  plow.     (International  Harvester  Company 
of  America.) 

Spring  Versus  Fall  Plowing. — Plowing  is  the  process  of 
breaking  up  the  soil  and  reducing  it  to  a  finer  state  of  divi- 
sion. Much  depends  upon  this  process.  The  difference 
between  loss  and  gain  is  sometimes  found  in  the  time  a 
soil  is  plowed.  This  difference  is  made  possible  because 
the  water-holding  capacity  of  a  soil  is  regulated  largely  by 
the  state  of  fineness  to  which  it  is  reduced.  It  is  a  well- 
recognized  fact  that  crops  cannot  grow  and  develop  with- 
out the  proper  amount  of  water.  This  water  is  increased 
if  the  plowing  is  done  at  the  proper  time  and  the  water 
content  can  largely  be  controlled  in  this  manner. 

Certain  types  of  soil  will  admit  of  fall  plowing  and  they 
will  be  greatly  improved  both  in  their  physical  proper- 
ties as  well  as  in  their  water-holding  capacity.  Soils  that 


SPRING  VERSUS  FALL  PLOWING 


73 


respond  to  this  treatment  are  the  heavier  types,  as  the 
clays.  Fall  plowing,  if  followed  by  surface  cultivation, 
conserves  the  water  by  checking  the  evaporation,  and  the 
land  is  left  in  a  better  condition  to  retain  the  moisture. 
When  fall  plowing  is  done  it  will  be  found  to  be  generally 
better  to  delay  the  surface  cultivation  until  the  following 
spring,  especially  on  heavy  clay  land.  If  clay  land  is  left 
ridged,  when  fall  plowed,  an  irregular  surface  is  exposed, 
and  the  rain  is  held  in  the  furrows  and  a  better  opportunity 
is  given  for  the  water  to  sink  into  the  subsoil. 


FIG.  20. — The  Osborne  disk  harrow.     (International  Harvester  Company 
of  America.) 

When  the  soil  is  not  plowed  until  in  the  spring  there  is  a 
greater  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  during  the  winter  and 
early  spring.  Besides  the  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  the 
soil  has  not  been  able  to  store  up  as  much  water  from  the 
rains  and  the  snows  during  the  winter,  because  it  has  been 


74  CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE 

packed  down,  and  a  large  percentage  of  the  water  has  been 
lost  by  surface  drainage.  Again  if  spring  plowing  is  prac- 
tised the  dry  soil  is  turned  under  and  the  moist  soil  is  exposed, 
so  that  if  a  mulch  is  not  immediately  formed  by  cultiva- 
tion a  great  deal  of  the  moisture  is  lost  by  the  exposure  of 
the  soil  to  the  sun  and  the  dry  winds. 

Bacterial  Action  of  the  Soil  Influenced  by  Cultivation. — In 
all  soils  there  are  two  bacterial  processes  continually  going 
on,  namely,  nitrification  and  denitrification.  Nitrification 
is  the  process  by  which  the  nitrates  and  the  nitrites  are 
produced  in  the  soil  by  minute  living  organisms.  These 


FIG.  21. — The  Osborne  sulky  spring-tooth  harrow. 

organisms  are  called  bacteria  and  are  very  small,  microscopic 
plants.  Nitrification  results  in  the  changing  of  the  com- 
plex organic  nitrogen  in  the  soil  into  other  forms  that  can 
be  used  by  the  plants.  In  order  that  this  process  can  be 
carried  on  successfully  by  the  nitrifying  bacteria,  six  funda- 
mental conditions  are  necessary:  (1)  Moisture,  (2)  oxygen, 
(3)  favorable  temperature,  (4)  absence  of  sunlight,  (5) 
nitrifying  bacteria,  (6)  some  compound  on  which  the  bac- 
teria can  work.  All  of  these  conditions  must  be  maintained. 
Cultivation,  particularly  of  the  heavier  types  of  soil,  favor 
nitrification  by  increasing  the  amount  of  air  in  the  soil, 


BACTERIAL  ACTION  OF  THE  SOIL 


75 


76  CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE 

by  making  the  soil  warmer,  and  by  aiding  in  hastening  the 
chemical  processes. 

Denitrification  is  the  reverse  of  nitrification,  and  is  the 
result  of  the  working  of  a  class  of  bacteria  that  break  down 
the  nitrates,  setting  free  nitrogen,  which  passes  off  as  a  gas. 
The  condition  necessary  for  this  class  of  organisms  to  work 
is  the  absence  of  air,  and  when  frequent  thorough  cultiva- 
tion is  given  and  the  soil  is  well  aerated  these  bacteria 
perish.  So  it  follows  that  the  best  way  of  eradicating  these 
injurious  bacteria  is  to  maintain  thorough  and  complete 
cultivation.  Besides  destroying  the  denitrifying  bacteria 
more  plant  food  is  made  available  by  increasing  and  by 
stimulating  the  reproduction  and  the  growth  of  the  friendly 
nitrifying  organisms. 


FIG.  23. — A  single  horse  adjustable  cultivator. 

Implements  for  Cultivation. — The  implements  for  cultiva- 
tion may  briefly  be  summed  up  as  follows:  (1)  The  plows, 
of  which  there  are  the  walking  plow,  the  sulky  plow,  the 
gang  plow,  the  disk  plow,  and  the  steam  plow;  (2)  the 
harrows,  of  which  there  are  the  smoothing  harrow,  the 
spring-tooth  harrow,  the  disk  harrow,  the  cut  away  disk 
harrow,  the  spading  harrow,  and  the  plow  cut-disk  harrow; 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS 


77 


(3)  the  rollers,  of  which  there  are  the  smooth  iron  roller, 
the  tubular  roller,  the  clod  crusher,  the  subsurface  packer, 
and  the  common  planker;  (4)  the  cultivators,  which  are 
classified  into  the  single-  and  the  double-shovel  cultivators, 
the  horse  and  the  hand  cultivators.  In  addition  to  the 
above  we  can  mention  the  garden  spades,  rakes,  and  hose. 
All  of  these  implements  and  tools  are  for  the  purpose  of 
putting  the  soil  in  the  best  possible  condition  as  well  as 
maintaining  the  conditions  necessary  for  plant  growth. 


FIG.  24. — An  eight-shovel  riding  cultivator. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  cultivation? 

2.  Is  there  any  difference  between  cultivation  and  tillage? 

3.  Why  is  cultivation  important? 

4.  Is  it  important  to  cultivate  at  a  given  time? 

5.  What  are  the  objects  of  cultivation? 

6.  Discuss  how  cultivation  aids  in  holding  water  in  the  soil. 

7.  How  does  cultivation  increase  the  bacterial  action  in  the  soil? 

8.  Discuss  how  cultivation  liberates  plant  food. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  deep  and  shallow  cultivation? 


78  CULTIVATION  AND  TILLAGE 

10.  What  is  meant  by  bottom  water,  capillary  water,  and  hygroscopic 
water? 

11.  Which  kind  of  water  can  be  used  by  the  plant? 

12.  When  should  you  practise  deep  and  shallow  plowing? 

13.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  vary  the  depth  of  plowing? 

14.  How  can  we  check  evaporation  from  the  soil? 

15.  Discuss  spring  and  fall  plowing. 

16.  What  is  meant  by  bacterial  action  in  the  soil? 

17.  Name  the  two  processes  that  go  on  in  the  soil  that  are  due  to  bacteria. 

18.  Discuss  the  conditions  necessary  for  nitrification. 


CHAPTER  V. 
PLANT  PROPAGATION. 

PLANT  propagation  is  the  multiplication  and  reproduc- 
tion of  plants.  There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  reproduction, 
namely,  sexual  and  vegetative.  (1)  Sexual  reproduction 
is  the  multiplication  of  plants  in  which  the  male  and  the 
female  elements  enter  into  the  formation  of  a  new  and  a 
distinct  individual  as  found  in  the  seed.  Most  seeds  of 
economic  importance  therefore  are  the  result  of  Asexual 
union  of  the  male  and  the  female  cell.  (2)  Vegetative  or 
asexual  reproduction  is  the  multiplication  of  plants  in  which 
the  sex  elements  play  no  part.  It  is  simply  the  continuation 
of  the  growth  of  the  parent  plant  in  a  new  location  with 
only  the  one  parent  concerned. 

Vegetative  reproduction  is  without  doubt  a  most  important 
form  of  propagation.  It  is  used  in  the  perpetuation  of  many 
plants,  especially  those  in  which  the  exact  parental  form  is 
desired.  The  different  kinds  of  vegetative  reproduction  may 
be  enumerated  as  follows:  (1)  Hardwood  cuttings,  (2)  soft- 
wood cuttings,  (3)  leaf  cuttings,  (4)  root  cuttings,  (5)  layers, 
(6)  suckers,  (7)  stolons,  (8)  tubers,  (9)  budding  and  (10) 
grafting.  In  addition  several  specialized  forms  are  also 
recognized. 

Vegetative  propagation  can  be  divided  into  two  great 
classes:  (1)  Propagation  by  parts  intact  by  which  is  meant 
that  the  part  of  the  plant  which  is  selected  for  propagation 
is  not  separated  from  the  parent  until  the  organs  needed 
to  make  it  self-supporting  are  formed,  as,  for  example,  layers, 
suckers  and  stolons;  (2)  propagation  by  parts  detached, 
by  which  is  meant  that  the  part  of  the  plant  which  is  intended 
for  propagation  is  cut  from  the  parent  at  the  beginning  and 
is  placed  under  favorable  conditions,  so  that  the  formation  of 


80 


PLANT  PROPAGATION 


the  organs  needed  to  make  it  self-supporting  takes  place. 
Examples  of  propagation  by  parts  detached  are  seen  in  all 
cuttings,  in  budding  and  in  grafting. 

Bulbs. — Bulbs  of  all  kinds  are  specialized  buds.  They  are 
composed  of  a  short  rudimentary  axis  closely  encased  in 
thickened  leaves  or  bulb  scales.  A  bulb  is  also  a  more  or 
less  permanent  and  a  compact  leaf  bud,  which  is  usually 
found  at  the  base  of  the  stem.  It  is  subterranean.  Roots 


FIG.  25. — Bulbs  of  the  tulip,  hyacinth  and  onion. 

are  always  sent  out  from  its  base.  The  thickened  bulb 
scales  are  stored  with  food,  which  is  used  during  the  sub- 
sequent growth  of  the  plant.  Bulbs  usually  occur  in  plants 
that  are  subject  to  a  long  period  of  inactivity  and  a  short 
period  of  growth. 

Bulbous  plants  are  propagated  most  easily  by  means  of 
little  bulbs,  which  are  borne  about  the  mother  bulb.  These 
small  bulbs  are  often  called  bulbels  or  offsets,  and  are  usually 


RHIZOMES 


81 


borne  near  the  base  of  the  parent  bulb.  In  some  of  the  lilies 
the  bulbels  form  at  the  top  or  crown  of  the  parent  bulb;  in 
other  cases  they  form  on  the  lower  part  of  the  flower  stalk, 
while  in  still  others  they  are  always  borne  beneath  the  scale 
leaves  of  the  parent.  Bulbels  vary  greatly  in  their  size  and 
number  in  the  different  species. 

Corm. — A  corm  is  a  short,  thick  and  fleshy  stem  which  is 
solid  throughout.  A  vertical  axis  fills  the  center.  The  corm 
is  covered  with  a  few  thin,  scaly 
leaves.  Corms  are  always  sub- 
terranean. In  general  shape  and 
appearance  a  corm  resembles  a 
bulb.  Common  examples  of  a 
corm  are  the  gladiolus,  the  crocus, 
the  cyclamen,  and  the  Indian 
turnip.  The  corms  of  the  differ- 
ent species  often  behave  quite 
differently.  The  corms  of  the 
gladiolus  and  the  crocus  are  re- 
produced annually  upon  the  top 
and  at  the  sides  of  the  parent. 
As  a  rule  a  new  corm  is  produced 
above  the  old  one  each  year, 
which  commonly  bears  flowers 
the  following  year. 

Rhizomes.— Rhizomes  are  sub- 
terranean stems  bearing  scale 
leaves.  They  grow  more  or  less 
horizontally  and  the  internodes 
vary  in  length  and  in  thickness; 
they  bear  roots  at  the  nodes. 
Every  species  has  a  type  of  rhi- 
zome peculiar  to  itself.  Familiar  examples  of  rhizomes  are 
the  slender  root  stocks  of  the  mints  and  the  thick,  fleshy  ones 
of  the  canna  and  the  iris.  Rhizomes  are  easily  distinguished 
from  roots  by  the  leaf  scales  in  the  axils  of  which  are  borne 
.buds.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  buds  df  a  rhizome  are 
exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  making  the  plants  bearing  them 
difficult  to  destroy  and  the  propagation  of  the  plant  extremely 


FIG.  26.- 


-Side  and  top  views 
of  a  corm. 


82  PLANT  PROPAGATION 

simple.  •  Plants  bearing  rhizomes  are  propagated  either 
by  separating  naturally  at  the  close  of  the  growing  season, 
or  by  being  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  buds. 
Each  part  of  the  rhizome  bearing  a  bud  will  develop  into  a 
new  plant.  The  divided  parts  are  treated  in  much  the  same 
way  as  bulbs.  However,  a  little  experience  is  necessary  in 
their  management  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  expected. 

Tubers. — A  tuber  is  the  localized  thickening  of  a  shoot. 
It  is  usually  subterranean  and  is  rarely  ever  found  above 
ground.  Tubers  bear  scale  leaves  which  are  analogous  to 
the  leaves  on  ordinary  stems.  The  scale  leaves  are  small 
and  insignificant  and  sometimes  are  not  recognized  in 
mature  specimens.  The  scale  leaves  are  always  at  some 
distance  from  each  other,  and  they  never  overlap.  The 
buds,  which  develop  in  the  axils  of  the  miniature  scale 
leaves,  are  called  eyes.  These  are  indicated  on  the  tuber 
by  ridges  or  lines  of  protuberance.  Generally,  tubers  are 
extremely  perishable  organs,  and  they  can  only  carry  the 
life  of  the  plant  from  one  season  to  the  next.  Plants  bear- 
ing tubers  are  easily  transported  long  distances  because  of 
the  reduced  and  compact  form. 

Tubers  reproduce  themselves  by  offshoots.  A  fully 
formed  tuber  becomes  detached  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
plant  by  the  decay  of  the  slender  stem.  This  connection 
of  the  tuber  with  the  parent  has  previously  supplied  it  with 
food.  After  varying  periods  of  rest  a  stem  springs  from  the 
eyes  of  the  new  tubers,  and  these  in  turn  bear  tubers  similar 
in  structure  to  those  of  the  parent. 

Propagation  by  tubers  is  extremely  simple.  It  consists 
either  in  planting  the  whole  tuber  or  a  portion  of  it,  each 
part  of  which  must  contain  an  eye  or  a  bud. 

Procumbent  Stems. — A  procumbent  stem  is  a  stem  that 
either  droops  to  the  ground  or  trails  over  it.  Usually  the 
habitat  of  this  class  of  plants  will  be  found  to  be  such  that 
erect  plants  are  unable  to  maintain  themselves,  and  the 
drooping  habit  is  acquired  in  order  that  the  plant  is  able 
to  live.  A  poor,  sandy  soil,  a  windy  hillside,  a  rocky  or 
rough  piece  of  ground  is  the  habitat  which  is  usually  found 
where  the  great  majority  of  these  plants  are  seen  growing. 


STOLON  83 

In  many  cases  the  trailing  stem  serves  the  usual  purpose 
of  supporting  the  leaves,  but  in  others  the  procumbent 
stem  becomes  a  means  of  perpetuating  and  distributing  the 
species.  These  stems  are  usually  characterized  by  the 
buds  at  the  nodes  taking  root  and  growing  into  new  plants. 
After  the  new  plant  is  thoroughly  established,  the  part  join- 
ing it  to  the  parent  gradually  disappears  and  the  new  plant 
becomes  an  independent  unit.  Procumbent  stems  differ 
somewhat  from  the  true  upright  stems,  in  that  they  are  more 
slender  and  usually  bear  little  or  no  foliage.  There  are  two 
distinct  types  of  procumbent  stems,  the  runner  and  the 
stolon. 

Runner. — A  runner  is  a  prostrate  stem  with  long  internodes 
and  destitute  of  foliage,  which  grows  out  from  the  parent 
plant.  It  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  slender  bud  bearing 
procumbent  stems.  At  varying  intervals  on  the  stem  are 
nodes  from  which  root  protuberances  are  formed  when  the 
proper  stimulus  is  given.  At  the  tip  of  the  runner,  under 
the  stimulus  of  the  damp  soil,  roots  develop  and  a  new 
plant  begins  to  grow.  When  the  new  plant  13  well  estab- 
lished, the  connecting  stem  usually  dies,  and  an  independent 
plant  is  the  result.  The  strawberry  plant  furnishes  a  good 
example  of  the  runner. 

In  moist,  sandy  soils  the  young  plants  will  usually  take 
root  without  artificial  aid,  but  in  hard,  heavy  soils  the 
runners  must  be  kept  in  contact  with  the  earth  either  by 
pegging  or  by  laying  a  weight  of  some  kind  on  the  runner. 

Stolon. — A  stolon  is  a  procumbent  stem  which  takes  root 
either  at  the  tip  or  at  the  node  of  the  stem,  and  grows  into 
a  new  and  an  independent  plant.  A  stolon  differs  from  a 
runner  in  having  a  more  procumbent  and  a  less  prostrate 
stem.  More  foliage  and  shorter  nodes  also  characterize 
the  stolon.  Besides  the  brambles,  many  of  the  ornamental 
plants  may  be  multiplied  by  means  of  stolons.  The  black 
raspberry  is  a  good  plant  to  illustrate  propagation  by  the 
use  of  the  stolon.  The  young  raspberry  canes  at  first  grow 
erect,  but  later  in  their  growth  the  ends  of  the  growing 
shoots  bend  toward  the  ground,  finally  touching  it,  where 
root  protuberances  slowly  develop  and  finally  roots  appear 


84 


PLANT  PROPAGATION 


and  a  new  plant  is  produced.  When  the  cane  reaches  the 
ground  the  stimulus  of  the  moist  soil  causes  small  protuber- 
ances, the  beginning  of  the  roots,  to  form.  As  the  contact 
of  the  cane  with  the  soil  becomes  closer,  the  roots  develop 
more  rapidly  and  as  they  become  stronger  and  better  estab- 
lished the  tip  of  the  cane  is  drawn  closely  to  the  ground. 
The  following  spring  and  occasionally  the  same  season  a 
leafy  shoot  appears  from  this  tip  and,  nourished  by  the  root, 
it  rapidly  grows  into  a  new  plant.  Through  decay  and 
subsequent  division  of  the  old  stem  the  young  plant  becomes 
detached  and  the  new  plant  begins  an  independent  existence. 


FIG.  27. — Mound  layering. 


Layer. — A  layer  is  a  stem  of  a  plant  bent  to  the  ground 
and  allowed  to  take  root  without  being  detached  from  the 
parent  plant.  It  is  nothing  more  than  an  artificial  stolon. 
Occasionally  the  young  shoots  from  the  parent  are  hilled 
up  with  soil  about  their  base  where  they  take  root.  A 
layer  differs  from  a  stolon  only  in  the  implication  that  man 
has  taken  a  hand  in  the  process  of  reproduction  to  aid  nature 
by  either  bending  the  branch  to  the  ground  or  by  hilling  up 


MOUND  LAYERING  85 

the  soil  around  the  young  shoots.  The  chief  advantage  of 
layering  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  parent  plant  supplies  water 
and  food  for  the  young  plants  until  they  are  able  to  sustain 
themselves.  It  also  has  the  advantage  of  being  an  extremely 
simple  operation  and  of  being  more  certain  than  most  of 
the  other  methods  of  vegetative  propagation.  Layering  is 
practised  chiefly  on  the  hard-wood  plants,  because  her- 
baceous plants  are  usually  more  readily  propagated  from 
cuttings.  Theoretically  nearly  all  of  the  woody  plants  can 
be  multiplied  by  layering,  but  in  practice  this  process  is 
confined  for  the  most  part  to  vines  or  to  those  plants  having 
long,  slender  shoots.  The  chief  reason  for  the  selection  of 
this  class  of  plants  is  because  of  the  ease  in  bending.  Bending 
is  more  easily  performed  on  such  plants  as  the  brambles, 
the  grapes  and  occasionally  the  currants.  Nevertheless 
many  similar  plants  are  often  increased  by  layering,  and 
even  the  apple,  the  quince  and  the  pear  may  be  so  propagated 
if  the  proper  medium  is  supplied  to  the  layering  wood.  In 
layering,  the  roots  are  not,  as  a  rule,  developed  in  proportion 
to  the  stem  and  their  place  of  development  is  not  prede- 
termined, but  is  fixed  by  some  external  agent  or  stimulant, 
as  for  example  the  contact  with  moist  soil.  Warm,  moist 
soil  will  act  as  a  stimulus  in  some  species  and  will  induce 
the  formation  of  roots,  while  in  other  species  and  by  far  the 
greater  number,  root  formation  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the 
wounding  of  the  stem  where  the  new  plant  is  wanted.  Such 
wounding  causes  adventitious  buds  to  form. 

Mound  Layering. — Occasionally  the  stems  of  plants  cannot 
be  readily  bent  to  the  ground  for  layering.  In  such  an 
event  a  mound  of  earth  is  heaped  about  the  plant,  which 
stimulates  the  formation  of  roots  on  the  previously  pre- 
pared shoots,  and  this  is  called  mound  layering.  Plants  for 
this  purpose  are  usually  first  prepared  by  heading  back  in 
the  spring,  with  the  result  that  a  large  number  of  young 
shoots  will  be  produced  about  the  crown  of  the  plant.  The 
following  summer  a  mound  of  earth  is  placed  about  these 
young  shoots.  Rooting  will  be  facilitated  if  the  shoots  are 
first  injured  in  some  way,  as  twisting,  girdling  or  ring- 
ing. Each  shoot  in  the  stool  forms  a  root  system  near  its 


86 


PLANT  PROPAGATION 


base,  making  in  most  cases  a  straight,  strong  and  stalky 
plant.  Mound  layering  is  best  adapted  to  the  low-branched 
trees  or  shrubs  that  are  stiff  and  erect  and  will  not  permit 
bending,  as,  for  example,  the  English  gooseberries  or  the 
quince. 


FIG.  28. — Notching,  tongueing  and  ringing. 

Tip  Layering. — Plants  that  have  willow-like  branches  or 
canes  similar  to  those  found  on  the  raspberries  are  propa- 
gated by  tip  layering.  Tip  layering  is  performed  by  bend- 
ing the  cane  or  branch  of  the  plant  down  to  the  ground, 
where  it  is  held  in  contact  with  the  moist  earth  by  being 
covered  with  several  inches  of  soil.  In  a  short  time  roots 
will  be  formed  at  the  tip  of  the  cane  and  a  new  plant  will 
start  to  grow.  When  the  young  plant  is  well  established 
the  cane  is  severed  and  it  is  removed  to  a  new  location. 
Tip  layering  is  so  named  because  the  plant  is  rooted  at  the 
tip  of  the  branch. 

Trench  Layering. — Trench  layering  is  performed  by  digging 
a  shallow  trench  and  laying  the  branch  of  the  plant  in  the 
bottom  of  the  trench.  The  entire  branch  is  covered  with 
earth  except  the  tip.  The  tip  is  allowed  to  grow  out  of 
the  ground  so  as  to  draw  the  plant  food  through  the  portion 
of  the  branch  which  is  covered.  The  covered  branch  should 
first  be  twisted  or  ringed  so  that  it  is  slightly  injured.  This 


AERIAL  LAYERING 


87 


injury  will  stimulate  the  plant  to  send  out  roots.  In  some 
plants  roots  will  form  at  each  node,  and  in  a  short  time 
several  young  plants  will  be  developed  from  this  branch. 
When  the  plants  are  well  established,  they  are  cut  apart 
and  each  one  set  in  a  new  location. 


FIG.  29. — Trench  and  serpentine  layering. 

Serpentine  Layering. — The  serpentine  layer  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  trench  layer.  It  is  usually  practised  on  plants 
which  have  long  flexible  branches,  as  the  grape.  The  name 
serpentine  is  taken  from  the  way  the  branch  is  bent.  Ser- 
pentine layering  is  done  by  bending  the  branch  in  an  undu- 
lating manner  and  the  roots  form  from  every  covered  part. 
As  soon  as  the  roots  develop,  the  top  begins  to  grow,  and 
when  the  plants  are  well  established  they  are  cut  apart  and 
set  inf their  new  location. 


FIG.  30. — Aerial  layering  of  the  oleander.     Note  the  moss  is  held  around 
the  branch  by  a  divided  flower  pot. 


Aerial  Layering. — Aerial  layering  is  propagation  in  which 
no  soil  is  used  as  a  medium  in  which  to  root  the  plants.     Aerial 


88  PLANT  PROPAGATION 

layering  is  adapted  to  such  plants  as  the  India  rubber  plant 
and  the  oleander.  Perhaps  the  plant  which  is  most  often 
propagated  by  this  method  is  the  rubber  plant.  To  per- 
form aerial  layering  the  branch  is  first  wounded  by  either 
ringing  or  tongueing.  When  this  operation  is  finished  the 
wounded  part  is  covered  up  with  damp  phasgnum  moss, 
which  is  tied  around  the  wounded  part.  Sometimes  a  divided 
flower  pot  is  placed  around  the  branch  and  filled  with  moss. 
The  moss  must  be  damp  and  never  allowed  to  dry  out.  It 
usually  requires  from  six  to  eight  weeks  before  sufficient 
roots  have  developed  to  remove  the  plant  from  the  parent. 
When  the  roots  have  filled  the  moss  the  branch  should  be 
cut  from  the  parent  below  the  phasgnum.  Set  the  new  plant 
in  a  pot  but  do  not  remove  the  moss.  Fill  the  pot  with  good 
soil  and  set  the  plant  in  a  shady  place  for  a  week  or  ten 
days  and  keep  the  soil  moist. 

Time  for  Layering. — The  spring,  when  the  growth  is  the 
most  rapid,  is  considered  the  most  favorable  time  for  lay- 
ering. The  operation  is  much  more  successful  in  a  moist 
and  a  warm  climate  than  in  a  dry  or  a  cold  one.  Occa- 
sionally it  is  advisable  to  make  the  layer  late  in  the  fall 
so  that  the  wound  may  callus  over  before  spring,  or  that 
bleeding  which  occurs  in  some  species  in  the  spring  may  be 
obviated.  Layering  may  easily  be  practised  on  many  of 
the  plants  grown  about  the  home.  The  grape,  the  currant 
or  the  gooseberry  are  easily  propagated  by  layering,  and  for 
the  amateur  it  is  a  very  satisfactory  method.  Layering  is 
a  good  method  of  propagation  because  the  young  plant  is 
nourished  by  the  parent  until  the  roots  are  formed. 

Cutting. — A  cutting  is  a  detached  member  of  a  plant  which 
is  placed  in  the  soil  or  some  other  medium  to  be  rooted. 
Cuttings  are  conveniently  divided  into  four  classes  with 
respect  to  the  part  of  the  plant  from  which  they  are  made: 
(1)  Tuber  cutting,  (2)  root  cutting,  (3)  stem  cutting,  (4) 
leaf  cutting. 

Tuber  Cuttings.' — Tuber  cuttings  are  made  by  divid- 
ing the  tubers  into  sections  containing  a  bud  or  an  eye. 
The  most  common  example  is  that  of  the  potato.  This 
method  of  propagation  is  common  in  the  planting  of  pota- 


CUTTING 


89 


toes.    Each  tuber  is  cut  into  a  number  of  pieces  with  each 
portion  containing  one  or  more  eyes.     Several  other  plants 


FIG.  31. — A  tuber  cutting. 


FIG.  32. — A  plant  grown  from  a  tuber  cutting  with  the  cutting  still 
attached. 


90  PLANT  PROPAGATION 

are  propagated  by  this  means.     The  essential  requisite  in 
the  tuber  cutting  is  to  have  an  eye  in  each  piece. 

Root  Cuttings. — Many  plants  can  be  multiplied  with  ease 
by  means  of  short  cuttings  of  the  root.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  all  species  that  possess  a  natural  tendency  to  sucker. 
True  root  cuttings  possess  no  buds,  and  the  buds  develop 
after  the  cutting  is  made.  The  roots  are  cut  into  pieces, 
varying  from  1  to  3  inches  in  length  and  are  planted  in  the 
soil  horizontally.  Root  cuttings  thrive  better  if  bottom 
heat  is  given.  Many  of  our  fruit  trees,  such  as  the  apple, 
the  pear,  the  cherry  and  the  peach,  can  be  easily  grown  by 
root  cuttings,  as  well  as  many  brambles  such  as  the  black- 
berries and  the  raspberries.  However,  it  is  never  recom- 
mended that  the  fruit  trees  be  propagated  by  root  cuttings, 
except  only  where  stocks  are  wanted  for  grafting  or  budding. 
The  horse-radish  furnishes  a  familiar  example  of  propagation 
by  root  cuttings.  This  plant  is  thus  propagated  in  a  com- 
mercial way  and  is  practically  the  only  means  of  securing  a 
stand. 

Stem  Cuttings. — Stem  cuttings  are  made  from  the  stem 
of  a  plant.  They  are  divided  into  three  general  classes:  (1) 
Soft  or  green-wood  cuttings;  (2)  semihard-wood  cuttings; 
(3)  hard  or  mature  wood  cuttings.  The  classes  gradually 
shade  into  each  other  and  no  hard-and-fast  line  can  be  drawn 
between  them. 

Green-wood  Cuttings. — A  green-  or  soft-wood  cutting  is 
made  from  a  plant  which  is  in  active  growing  state.  Green- 
wood cuttings  are  very  popular  because  they  strike  root 
quickly.  Soft-wood  cuttings  can  also  be  handled  very 
easily  under  glass  in  the  winter,  and  more  species  can  be 
propagated  by  this  cutting  than  by  the  hard-wood  cutting. 

A  green-wood  cutting  is  sometimes  called  a  slip.  The 
term  is  usually  restricted  to  designate  those  cuttings  which 
may  be  made  by  pulling  or  slipping  off  of  a  small  shoot. 
The  term  slip  should  be  discarded  since  cutting  is  by  far 
the  more  proper  to  use.  The  term  slip  is  also  applied  to  the 
multiplication  of  plants  that  are  grown  in  the  window  gar- 
den. All  of  the  soft-wooded  plants  and  many  of  the  orna- 
mental shrubs  may  be  increased  by  green-wood  cuttings. 


CUTTING 


91 


FIG.  33. — Green- wood  cuttings. 


FIG.  34. — Division  of  a  plant. 


92  PLANT  PROPAGATION 

Hard-wood  Cuttings. — Hard-wood  cuttings  are  made  from 
mature  and  dormant  wood  of  the  woody  plants.  Hard- 
wood cuttings  are  taken  either  in  the  late  fall  or  in  the 
winter.  They  differ  from  the  soft-wood  cuttings  in  having 
no  leaves  and  in  bearing  buds  that  are  dormant.  Hard-wood 
cuttings  should  be  taken  from  wood  of  the  previous  season's 
growth,  and  they  should  be  shoots  of  medium  size. 

The  length  of  a  cutting  depends  somewhat  upon  the  plant 
as  well  as  upon  the  length  of  the  internodes.  Usually  it  is 
made  6  inches  in  length,  but  in  some  plants  and  under  some 
conditions  the  length  may  vary  from  8  to  10  inches.  In 
the  grape,  where  a  three-eye  cutting  is  used,  it  must  of 
necessity  be  from  7  to  10  inches  in  length.  On  the  currant, 
the  gooseberry  and  many  of  the  ornamentals,  where  the 
internodes  are  short,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  cutting  6 
inches  in  length.  In  taking  the  cutting  it  is  considered  wise 
to  make  the  cut  on  the  proximal  end  just  below  a  bud 
because  it  is  thought  roots  will  start  more  readily  when  cut 
at  that  point. 

Storing  and  Handling  of  Hard-wood  Cuttings. — Cuttings 
made  from  dormant  wood  must  be  gathered  in  the  fall  and 
the  winter  and  stored  until  spring  to  produce  the  best  results. 
They  are  usually  packed  in  damp  sand  and  stored  in  a  cellar 
that  is  cool  and  moist.  Sufficient  warmth  should  be  present 
in  order  to  permit  the  callousing  of  the  ends  and  to  encourage 
root  development  but  not  heat  enough  so  that  the  buds  will 
swell.  Damp  sawdust,  clean  sand  or  a  loose  loam  furnish 
the  best  mediums  in  which  to  store  the  cuttings.  They  can 
also  be  buried  in  the  open  ground  below  the  frost  line. 

Hard-wood  cuttings  treated  in  this  manner  will  develop 
root  protuberances  before  any  top  growth  takes  place. 
When  the  cuttings  are  taken  directly  from  the  parent  plant 
and  placed  under  conditions  that  favor  leaf  growth  before 
callousing  has  taken  pilace  the  resulting  plants  will  be  inferior 
to  those  which  have  been  allowed  to  callous  over.  Just 
why  this  should  occur  is  not  definitely  known,  except  that 
the  callousing  of  the  tissue  in  some  way  stimulates  the  forma- 
tion of  a  good  root  system,  which  in  turn  gives  a  healthy 
and  robust  plant. 


CUTTING  93 

Semi-wood  Cuttings. — Semihard-wood  cuttings  are  made 
from  wood  that  is  nearly  mature.  Common  examples 
are  the  roses  and  the  hydrangeas.  These  cuttings  are  often 
made  in  the  late  summer  or  the  early  fall  when  the  buds 
have  become  fully  developed  and  the  wood  has  partially 
matured.  Semihard-wood  cuttings  occupy  a  place  midway 
between  the  soft-wood  and  the  hard-wood  cuttings.  They 
are  cut  about  the  same  length  as  the  hard-wood  cuttings, 
and  are  not  stored  but  are  planted  at  once  in  the  propaga- 
tion bed.  Bottom  heat  should  be  provided  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  expected,  especially  if  they  are  rooted  in 
the  fall  or  the  winter.  Semihard-wood  cuttings  should  not 
be  planted  too  deeply  and  from  1|  to  2  inches  is  about  the 
proper  depth.  The  length  of  the  semihard-wood  cuttings 
varies,  and  ranges  from  3  to  5  inches.  One  leaf  is  attached 
to  each  cutting. 

Methods  of  Handling  Soft-wood  Cuttings  and  Semihard- 
wood  Cuttings. — The  soft-wood  and  the  semihard-wood  cut- 
tings are  not  handled  in  the  same  way  as  the  hard-wood 
cuttings.  Since  the  tissue  is  soft  and  green  and  in  a  growing 
state,  it  .would  be  highly  injurious  to  the  cuttings  if  they 
were  stored  in  any  way  before  being  planted.  Owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  wood  from  which  they  are  made  it  is  essential 
for  them  to  be  planted  directly  in  the  propagating  bed  as 
soon  as  they  are  made. 

The  propagation  bed  is  of  any  convenient  size.  It  some- 
times consists  of  only  a  shallow  pan  or  a  saucer  in  which 
some  clean,  sharp  sand  has  been  placed.  This  is  sometimes 
called  the  saucer  method  for  the  propagation  of  cuttings. 
Flats  of  any  standard  size  may  be  used  as  receptacles  for 
holding  the  sand.  The  best  and  the  most  efficient  place  to 
construct  a  propagating  bed  is  in  a  greenhouse.  A  given 
amount  of  greenhouse  bench  space  should  be  provided  and 
filled  with  clean,  sharp  sand  free  from  organic  matter.  It 
is  important  that  no  organic  matter  of  any  kind  is  in  the 
sand,  since  this  often  causes  great  injury  to  the  cutting  by 
rotting. 

The  cuttings  are  placed  in  the  sand  of  the  propagating 
box  as  soon  as  they  are  removed  from  the  plant*  When 


94  PLANT  PROPAGATION 

the  soft-wood  cuttings  are  propagated  about  two-thirds  of 
the  leaf  surface  is  removed  in  order  to  reduce  the  transpira- 
tion. It  requires  from  three  to  six  weeks  for  the  cuttings 
to  strike  root  and  with  some  plants  even  a  longer  time  is 
necessary.  Gentle  bottom  heat  is  valuable  in  assisting  or 
stimulating  the  cuttings  to  form  roots.  As  soon  as  roots 
have  been  formed,  the  cuttings  are  potted  in  small  thumb 
pots  and  shifted  to  larger  sizes  as  the  plants  grow. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  two  kinds  of  reproduction  occur  in  plants? 

2.  What  is  sexual  reproduction;  vegetative  reproduction? 

3.  How  does  sexual  reproduction  differ  from  vegetative  reproduction? 

4.  Name  ten  kinds  of  vegetative  reproduction. 

5.  What  is  a  bulb? 

6.  How  are  bulbs  propagated? 

7.  How  does  a  corm  differ  from  a  bulb? 

8.  What  is  a  rhizome;  a  tuber? 

9.  Differentiate  between  a  rhizome  and  a  procumbent  stem. 

10.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  runner,  a  stolon  and  a  layer? 

11.  What  kind  of  plants  are  usually  propagated  by  stolons  and  by  layers? 

12.  What  is  tip  layering  and  give  an  example? 

13.  Distinguish  between  a  tuber  cutting  and  a  root  cutting. 

14.  Differentiate  between  a  stem  cutting  and  a  leaf  cutting. 

15.  Discuss  the  storing  of  hard- wood  cuttings. 

16.  How  do  semihard-wood  cuttings  differ  from  soft- wood  and  hard- wood 
cuttings? 

17.  Why  must   soft-wood   cuttings   be  handled   differently  from   hard- 
wood cuttings? 

18.  Discuss  the  planting  of  soft-wood  cuttings. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING. 

BUDDING. 

PROPAGATION  by  budding  consists  in  placing  a  bud  of  the 
desired  variety  bearing  little  or  no  wood  under  the  bark  of 
the  stock,  in  such  a  way  that  the  cambium  layer  of  the  bud 
and  the  stock  are  in  apposition.  The  bud  is  a  branch  bud 
attached  to  a  small  piece  of  bark.  The  stock  is  the  part 
of  the  plant  on  which  the  bud  is  placed.  The  bark  of  the 
stock  is  closed  over  the  bud  in  some  cases.  In  other  cases 
the  bark  is  removed  entirely,  and  the  bud  is  tied  firmly  to 
the  stock.  If  the  operation  is  successful  the  bud  and  the 
stock  will  fuse  together  and  in  due  time  the  bud  will  grow 
and  make  a  new  plant. 

Time  to  Bud. — The  proper  time  to  do  budding  varies 
greatly  with  the  locality  as  well  as  with  the  plant.  It  is 
very  important  when  budding  to  select  a  season  of  the  year 
when  the  plant  is  not  growing  too  rapidly,  ia  order  that 
strangulation  of  the  bud  will  not  take  place.  Strangulation 
is  caused  when  an  abundance  of  sap  is  present  in  the  plant 
tissue  and  after  the  incision  is  made  for  the  bud  the  wound 
bleeds  profusely.  When  the  bud  is  placed  in  the  incision  on 
the  stock,  the  flowing  out  of  the  sap  is  so  great  that  it  prevents 
the  bud  from  uniting  to  the  stock,  and  in  many  cases  it  is 
washed  out  of  place. 

Budding  is  performed  during  the  growing  season,  but  at  a 
time  when  the  plant  is  not  too  actively  growing.  Aim  to 
select  a  time  when  the  growth  is  on  its  down  path  after  its 
zenith  has  been  reached,  and  when  the  plant  is  beginning 
to  prepare  itself  for  the  winter.  In  some  sections  of  the  North 
budding  is  usually  performed  during  July,  August,  or  early 


96 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 


September.     In  some  parts  of  the  South,  however,  budding 
is  done  in  June  and  is  then  known  as  June  budding. 

Cutting  of  the  Bud.— The  cutting  of  the 
bud  must  be  done  with  great  precision.  A 
sharp,  thin-bladed  knife,  of  which  there  are 
several  styles  on  the  market,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Select  a  budding  knife  made  of  the 
best  steel,  and  one  that  has  a  circular  cut- 
ting end.  The  curved  end  of  the  knife  is 
essential  for  making  the  incision  in  the  stock. 
In  some  budding  knives  the  handle  runs  to 
a  thin  scalpel  at  the  end,  and  this  part  is 
designated  for  the  lifting  of  the  bark  on  the 
stock. 

The  bud  is  cut  about  an  inch  in  length. 
In  the  shield  or  the  prong  bud,  the  budder 
can  either  cut  up  or  down  on  the  stock.  The 
cutting  is  determined  by  the  inclination  of 
the  person  doing  the  budding,  although  the 
upward  cut  is  preferable.  In  removing  the 
bud  there  is  usually  a  small  bit  of  wood 
that  is  taken  off  with  it,  especially  in  shield 
and  prong  budding.  There  is  some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  whether  or  not  this 
wood  is  injurious  to  the  subsequent  growth 
of  the  plant.  Where  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  wood  left  on  the  bud  it  should  be  removed, 
but  where  only  a  thin  piece  exists  it  can 
remain.  The  greatest  disadvantage  of  hav- 
ing a  small  piece  of  wood  attached  to  the  bud 
is  that  the  wood  interposes  a  foreign  body 
between  the  two  healing  surfaces.  In  other 
forms  of  budding  no  wood  should  be  per- 
mitted to  remain  on  the  bud.  The  edges  of 
all  buds  must  be  cut  even  and  smooth  and 
not  left  ragged  or  broken. 

Shield  Bud. — Shield  budding  is  perhaps 
the  most  important  kind  of  budding.  It  is 
the  form  most  often  practised.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  shield-like  shape  of  the  por- 


FIG.  35.  —  A 
bud-stick,  show- 
ing the  method 
of  cutting  the 
buds. 


BUDDING 


97 


tion  of  bark  bearing  the  bud.  It  is  also  called  T  budding 
because  of  the  T-shaped  cut  made  in  the  stock  for  the 
insertion  of  the  bud.  This  method  of  budding  is  also  called 
eye  budding  by  some  propagators. 


FIG.  36. — A  good  type  of  non-folding  budding  knife. 

The  bud  is  cut  from  the  stock  by  either  a  downward  or  an 
upward  sloping  cut.     A  sharp  knife  is  necessary  in  removing 


FIG.  37. — An  excellent  type  of  a  folding  budding  knife. 

the  bud,  and  as  little  of  the  wood  as  possible  should  remain 
attached  to  the  bark.     While  it  has  never  been  proved  that 


FIG.  38. — Several  views  of  the  bud  for  shield  budding,  showing  the 
shield-like  shape. 


the  wood  is  very  injurious,  it  is  apparent  that  an  inert  object 
back  of  the  bud  would  interpose  a  foreign  substance  and 
would  prevent  the  complete  union  of  the  bud  with  the  stock. 
After  the  bud  has  been  removed  it  resembles  a  shield  in  shape 

7 


98 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 


and  in  appearance.     It  should  be  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  inches  in  length. 

To  practise  shield  budding  a  vertical  cut  is  made  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  in  length.     On  the  stock  at  the  point 


FIG.  39. — Successive  stages  in 
shield  budding. 


FIG.  40. — Plate  budding,  showing  the 
cut  on  the  stock  and  the  bud. 


where  the  bud  is  to  be  inserted  a  second  cut  is  made  about 
one-half  inch  in  length,  and  placed  near  the  top  of  the 
vertical  cut  and  usually  at  right  angles  to  it.  In  certain 
sections  of  the  South  the  transverse  cut  is  made  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vertical  cut,  which  gives  the  appearance  of 


GRAFTING  99 

an  inverted  X;  while  in  some  other  sections  of  the  country 
the  cut  is  made  at  the  top,  which  forms  the  letter  T  in 
an  upright  position.  There  is  little  difference  seen  in  the 
subsequent  results  no  matter  what  method  is  used,  and  it  is 
usually  left  to  the  individual  as  to  which  way  the  cut  is  made. 

Plate  Bud. — Plate  budding  is  not  a  very  important  com- 
mercial form.  It  is  occasionally  used  on  some  of  the  orna- 
mentals and  some  other  rare  stocks.  Plate  budding  takes 
its  name  from  the  plate-like  piece  of  bark  that  is  cut  and 
allowed  to  hang  down  in  the  form  of  a  hinge.  Plate  budding 
is  performed  as  follows : 

A  rectangular  incision  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
in  width  and  one  to  one  and  one-fourth  inches  in  length 
is  cut  through  the  bark  on  the  stock.  Three  sides  of  the 
bark  are  cut,  leaving  the  fourth  intact.  This  method  of 
making  the  incision  permits  the  bark  to  bend  back  on  the 
fourth  side,  forming  a  hinge.  The  bud  is  cut  rectangular 
in  shape  to  fit  the  cut  made  on  the  stock.  No  wood  should 
be  attached  to  the  bark  bearing  the  bud.  The  bark  should 
be  cut  in  such  a  way  that  the  bud  will  be  closer  to  the  upper 
edge  of  the  bark.  The  bud  is  then  fitted  to  the  stock  and  the 
flap  of  bark  on  the  stock  is  turned  up  over  the  bud  and  firmly 
tied  in  place.  The  cord  used  for  tying  should  pass  around 
the  stock  underneath  the  bud,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
the  subsequent  growth  of  it.  In  this  method  of  budding 
the  bark  serves  as  a  protection  to  the  bud  until  it  .starts  its 
growth. 

GRAFTING. 

Grafting  is  the  vegetative  multiplication  of  plants.  A  cion 
which  is  a  twig  with  one  or  more  buds  is  inserted  into  the 
stock  of  a  plant.  The  cion  is  usually  placed  into  an  incision 
or  a  cleft  in  the  stock,  made  for  that  purpose.  Grafting 
is  divided  into  several  different  types.  Each  type  is  desig- 
nated by  the  way  in  which  the  stock  and  the  cion  are  joined. 
It  is  also  classified  with  reference  to  the  position  of  the 
union  upon  the  plant. 

Four  general  classes  of  grafting  are  usually  made  with 
reference  to  the  position  of  the  cion  on  the  stock:  (1)  Top 


100  BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 

grafting,  which  is  the  grafting  in  the  top  or  in  the  branches 
of  the  tree.  Under  this  head  is  usually  included  cleft  and 
bark  grafting.  (2)  Stem  grafting,  which  is  the  grafting  in  the 
trunk  or  the  main  stem  of  the  tree.  Under  this  head  is 
included  side  grafting  and  sometimes  bridge  grafting.  (3) 
Crown  grafting,  which  is  the  grafting  performed  at  or  near 
the  crown  of  the  plant,  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
(4)  Root  grafting,  which  is  the  grafting  done  entirely  upon 
the  roots,  or  in  which  the  stock  is  a  root.  For  the  purpose 
of  description  the  best  classification  is  that  which  considers 
the  ways  of  making  the  union.  There  are  many  modifica- 
tions of  each  form  of  grafting  and  only  the  most  important 
types  are  discussed. 

Purpose  and  Value  of  Grafting. — Grafting  as  well  as  budding 
is  used  to  perpetuate  and  to  propagate  a  known  variety 
of  a  plant  which  may  be  either  a  fruit  or  ornamental.  It 
is  a  vegetative  means  of  plant  multiplication  in  which  a 
plant  of  known  quality  is  propagated  in  a  commercial  way. 
It  is  of  great  value,  because  it  enables  the  grower  to  multiply 
and  to  increase  a  good  variety,  which  might  be  lost  if  propa- 
gation by  seed  was  undertaken.  Grafting  is  also  of  value 
because  the  grower  is  sure  just  what  his  new  plant  is  going 
to  be  and  he  knows  for  a  certainty  that  the  new  plant  will 
be  like  the  parent  plant. 

Uses  of  Grafting. — Grafting  is  used  for  several  reasons,  of 
which  soifne  of  the  most  important  are:  (1)  To  perpetuate  a 
known  variety.  This  is  the  most  important  use  of  grafting. 
(2)  To  increase  the  ease  and  the  speed  of  multiplication  of 
plants.  (3)  To  produce  some  radical  change  in  the  habit 
and  the  nature  of  the  two  parts.  Grafting  will  modify  the 
stature  of  a  plant.  It  is  the  most  common  means  of  dwarfing 
trees.  The  pear  is  dwarfed  by  grafting  it  upon  the  quince, 
and  the  apple  by  grafting  it  on  the  dwarf  paradise  stock. 
(4)  Grafting  may  be  used  to  adapt  plants  to  adverse  soils. 
A  common  example  is  seen  when  the  plum  is  grafted  on  the 
peach  so  that  the  plum  can  be  grown  on  a  sandy  soil,  and 
vice  rersa.  (5)  Grafting  may  be  used  to  correct  a  poor  habit 
of  growth,  as,  for  example,  the  Canada  Red  apple  which 
has  a  straggling  habit  of  growth,  is  grafted  on  some  straight 


GRAFTING* 


growing  tree,  as  the  Tolman  Sweet.  (6)  Grafting  is  a  means 
of  hastening  fruitfulness.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that 
cions  placed  in  old  and  mature  trees  will  bear  earlier  than 
if  they  are  placed  in  young  growing  trees.  (7)  Grafting  in 
some  cases  will  modify  the  color  of  the  foliage,  the  fruit 
and  the  flowers  of  certain  plants.  (8)  Grafting  increases  the 
size  of  certain  fruits,  as,  for  example,  the  fruit  of  a  few 
varieties  of  pears  is  larger  when  grafted  on  the  quince  than 
when  grown  on  the  standard  trees. 

Cion.  —  A  cion  is  a  twig  taken  from  a  tree  which  is  to  be 
used  for  grafting.  The  size  is  determined  by  the  method 
of  grafting,  and  by  the  quantity  of  available  grafting  wood. 
Cions  vary  in  size  from  one  bud  to  six  or  seven  buds  and  in 
some  cases  even  more.  The  latest  work  on  grafting,  however, 
would  indicate  that  the  number  of  buds  should  be  either 
three  or  four.  Taking  this  number  of  buds  as  a  basis,  the 
length  of  the  cion  would  vary  from  three  to  five  inches. 

The  cions  can  be  collected  any  time  in  the  fall  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  or  in  the  spring.  It  is  thought  better, 
however,  either  to  cut  them  from  the  tree  before  they  have 
frozen,  or  to  wait  until  they  have  thoroughly  thawed  out. 
It  is  sometimes  injurious  to  cut  the  cions  from  the  trees  while 
they  are  frozen.  In  case  the  cions  are  not  used  for  root 
grafting,  and  have  to  be  held  over  winter  they  must  be  care- 
fully stored  in  a  cellar.  The  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  cut  the 
cions  from  the  varieties  selected,  tie  them  in  bundles,  label 
each  bundle  carefully  and  cover  them  with  damp  sand  or 
sawdust,  then  place  them  in  a  cool  cellar.  The  temperature 
must  be  low  enough  so  the  buds  will  not  start  into  growth. 
About  35°  F.  is  a  good  temperature  to  maintain  in  storing 
the  cions.  The  cions  should  not  be  permitted  to  freeze  or 
to  dry  out  while  in  storage. 

The  cions  should  always  be  cut  from  healthy  mature  trees. 
Only  the  best  twigs  from  the  current  season's  growth  should 
be  selected.  Wood  that  is  two  years  old  is  occasionally  used 
but  never  recommended,  where  the  best  results  are  desired. 
While  the  two-year-old  wood  will  occasionally  grow  it  will 
never  produce  as  good  plants  as  the  younger  wood.  Occa- 
sionally, well-matured  water  sprouts  are  used,  but  this  kind 


i02  -BVD'Dl'KG  AND  GRAFTING 

of  wood  is  not  recommended  unless  it  is  impossible  to  get 
enough  of  the  better  wood.  The  growth  at  the  tips  of  the 
branches  of  a  mature  tree  is  by  far  the  best  cion  wood,  and 
whenever  it  is  possible  wood  of  this  kind  should  be  chosen. 
Stock. — The  stock  used  in  grafting  is  that  part  of  the  plant 
into  which  the  cion  is  placed.  It  varies  in  size  and  in  age. 
Sometimes  the  stock  is  a  small  root,  other  times  it  is  a  small 
twig,  occasionally  it  is  a  trunk  of  a  tree,  and  sometimes 
it  is  a  branch  one  or  two  inches  in  diameter.  Therefore 
the  size  or  the  age  of  the  stock  is  determined  by  the  kind  of 
grafting.  If  the  best  results  in  grafting  are  expected,  the 
stock  should  be  in  good  condition,  so  that  growth  will  start 
at  the  proper  season. 


FIG.  41. — The  splice  graft. 

Splice  Graft. — Splice  grafting  is  the  most  simple  kind  of 
grafting.  As  its  name  signifies,  it  is  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  the  splicing  together  of  two  plants,  both  of  which  are 
about  the  same  size.  One  part  is  called  the  stock  and  the 
other  part  is  called  the  cion.  To  make  this  graft,  the  cion 
and  the  stock  are  each  cut  diagonally  across  and  the  two  cut 
surfaces  are  placed  in  contact  with  each  other.  The  diagonal 
cut  should  be  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length. 
The  two  parts  should  be  placed  so  that  the  cambium  layer  in 
each  piece  is  in  contact  at  one  or  more  points.  The  two  pieces 
are  then  tied  together  firmly  with  grafting  cord,  and  occa- 
sionally they  are  waxed  over.  Splice  grafting  is  commonly 
employed  on  such  plants  that  have  soft  and  tender  wood 
which  will  not  split  without  injury  to  the  parts. 

Tongue  Graft. — The  tongue  graft  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  splice  graft,  and  it  might  be  regarded  as  a  modification 
of  it.  In  the  tongue  graft  a  split  is  made  in  addition  to  the 
diagonal  cut  of  the  splice  graft.  The  split  in  the  two  parts 
ensures  them  of  being  held  more  firmly  together.  This  form 
of  grafting  is  also  called  whip  grafting,  and  the  expression 


GRAFTING 


103 


of  tongue  and  whip  grafting  is  often  heard.  Tongue  grafting 
is  employed  only  upon  small  stocks,  and  in  the  majority  of 
cases  a  seedling  root  is  the  stock  which  is  used  for  this  kind 
of  grafting.  The  tongue  or  whip  graft  is 
very  important  in  the  propagation  of  nurs- 
ery stock,  because  it  is  easily  made,  and 
usually  a  good  percentage  of  the  grafts 
grow.  This  graft  is  used  almost  univer- 
sally in  root  grafting.  When  selecting 
the  root  for  the  stock,  all  knots  or  shoulders 
should  be  avoided,  because  they  will  inter- 
fere with  the  work. 

To  make  the  tongue  or  whip  graft,  select 
stocks  and  cions  which  are  of  one  size. 
The  same  size  for  each  part  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  but  very  convenient.  Cut 
both  the  cion  and  the  stock  diagonally 
across.  The  diagonal  cut  should  be  from 
one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  in  length. 
One-half  inch  from  the  end  on  the  diagonal 
cut  make  a  slit  about  one-half  inch  in  length 
on  both  the  stock  and  the  cion.  Do  not 
split  either  the  cion  or  the  stock,  because 
that  will  leave  a  rough  surface,  and  the  two 
parts  will  not  fit  together  tightly.  The 
stock  and  the  cion  are  now  fastened  together 
by  shoving  the  tongue  of  the  cion  into  the 
cleft  of  the  stock.  The  two  parts  are  held 
together  by  tying  them  firmly  with  graft- 
ing cord  or  with  raffia.  In  nursery  work 
a  method  often  employed  is  to  firmly  force 
the  two  parts  together  without  tying;  and 
pack  them  carefully  in  boxes.  The  grafts 
should  then  be  covered  with  sand.  By 
careful  handling,  the  two  parts  will  callous 
over  and  become  united  and  a  strong  union  will  be  made 
before  the  time  arrives  to  plant  the  grafts. 

Root  grafting  is  usually  performed  in  the  .winter  when 
other  work  is  scarce.     After  the  grafts  are  made  they  are 


FIG.  42.  —  A 
piece-root  whip 
and  tongue  graft. 


104 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 


stored  away  in  a  cool  cellar,  and  usually  covered  with  sand 
until  the  following  spring,  when  they  are  set  out  in  the 
nursery  row.  A  .temperature  of  about  35°  to  40°  F.  is 
required  for  storing  the  grafts.  In  tongue  or  whip  grafting 

the  cion  usually  bears  from  three 
to  four  buds.  The  number  of 
buds,  however,  is  also  determined 
by  the  section  of  the  country  in 
which  the  grafting  is  done.  When 
root  grafting  is  performed  in  the 
northern  sections  where  winter 
killing  is  apt  to  occur,  sometimes 
long  cions  taken  from  trees  that 
are  acclimated  to  that  region 
are  used.  Cions  eight  or  ten 
inches  long  are  used  in  these 
regions  because  they  can  be 
planted  deep,  and  roots  will 
finally  develop  on  the  cion.  In 
such  a  case  if  the  stock  of  the 
graft  is  winter  killed  the  plant 
will  still  grow.  The  piece  of 
root  on  which  the  grafting  is 
done  acts  as  a  temporary  sup- 
port and  aids  the  plant  to  get 
started. 

Saddle  Graft.— Saddle  graft- 
ing is  usually  employed  upon 
herbaceous  plants  or  plants  that 
have  thick  fleshy  tissue  like  the 
cacti.  It  is  very  convenient 
for  grafting  small  plants.  In 
making  the  saddle  graft  the  cion 

is  split  near  the  middle.  The  stock  is  then  cut  wedge- 
shape  by  two  draws  of  the  knife,  and  the  cion  fitted  over 
the  wedge  and  secured  in  some  way.  In  the  grafting  of 
cacti  by  this  method  it  is  the  common  practice  to  use  one 
of  the  spines  to  hold  the  two  parts  together.  The  union  of 
the  two  parts  will  soon  take  place.  In  woody  plants  the 


FIG.  43. — A  root  graft  after 
one  year.  Note  the  union  in 
the  longitudinal  section. 


GRAFTING  105 

graft  is  tied  in  the  same  manner  as  the  splice  or  the  tongue 
graft.  Occasionally  the  joint  is  waxed  over.  The  saddle 
graft  is  employed  principally  when  a  terminal  bud  is  used. 


FIG.  44. — An  excellent  grafting  chisel,  showing  the  first  position  in  the  cleft 

graft. 


Cleft  Graft. — Cleft  grafting  is  preeminently  the  form  of 
grafting  that  is  the  most  popular  in  the  top  working  of  trees. 
It  can  be  successfully  used  on  limbs  up  to  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  but  it  is  not  considered  valuable  for  use  on  larger 


FIG.  45. — The  second  position  of  the  grafting  chisel  in  the  cleft  graft. 

limbs.  When  the  cion  is  placed  in  larger  limbs  the  pressure 
of  the  two  parts  of  the  stock  is  so  great  that  the  cion  is 
crushed.  To  make  a  cleft  graft  the  limb  is  selected  and 


106 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 


sawed  off  squarely.    It  is  then  carefully  split  with  a  grafting 

chisel.    If  no  grafting  chisel  is  available,  fairly  satisfactory 

work  can  be  done  with  a  « 

wood  chisel  of  the  proper 

size.     In  cutting  the  stock 

select    a    place    free    from 

knots,     because'   a     clean 

straight  cut  will  not  result 

if  the  chisel  strikes  a  knot  in 

the  wood. 

The  remaining  portion  of 
the  limb  after  the  top  is  cut 
off  is  called  the  "stub."  The 
stub  is  usually  large  enough 


FIG.  46.— The  cleft  graft  with  the 
cions  in  position. 


FIG.  47. — The  bark  graft  with  the  cions 
in  position  and  the  stub  waxed. 


to  accommodate  two  cions.  Occasionally  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, four  cions  are  placed  in  a  stub,  but  this  is  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule. 

The  cions  are  cut  wedge-shape  at  the  base  and  are  inserted 


GRAFTING  107 

into  the  cleft  made  in  the  stub.  The  cions  bear  from  two 
to  four  buds,  but  the  number  usually  preferred  by  most 
grafters  is  three.  The  cions  are  cut  by  two  draws  of  the 
knife,  and  one  side  should  be  slightly  narrower  than  the 
other.  This  double  wedge  aids  in  holding  the  cion  more 
securely  in  the  stub.  The  narrow  side  of  the  cion  should 
face  toward  the  center  of  the  stock.  To  insert  the  cions 
in  the  stub,  first  spread  apart  the  two  halves  of  the  stub 
by  means  of  the  wedge  on  the  grafting  chisel.  In  placing 
the  cions  in  the  stock,  the  utmost  care  must  be  exercised  to 
see  that  the  inner  bark  of  the  cion  and  the  stock  come  in 
contact  with  each  other,  so  that  the  cambium  layers  of  the 
two  parts  are  together.  The  matching  of  the  cambium  layer 
of  the  cion  and  the  stock  is  made  more  certaia  if  the  cions 
are  slanted  outward  at  a  slight  angle.  The  cions  should 
be  forced  into  the  cleft  to  the  first  bud  and  sometimes  deeper. 
The  wedge  should  be  made  from  one  to  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  length,  and  fit  snugly  into  the  cleft. 

After  the  cions  are  placed  in  the  stub  and  properly  adjusted, 
the  cut  surfaces  should  be  covered  with  grafting  wax.  The 
wax  should  extend  over  the  stub  for  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 
Fill  the  split  along  each  side  of  the  stub  with  wax  in  order 
to  prevent  infection  of  any  kind  entering  the  stub.  The 
bark  graft  is  similar  to  that  of  the  cleft  graft,  except  the 
cions  are  placed  between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  Bark 
grafting  is  used  on  larger  limbs  than  cleft  grafting. 

Bridge  Graft. — The  bridge  graft  is  considered  a  form  of 
bark  grafting.  Bridge  grafting  is  not  used  as  much  as  its 
value  would  warrant.  The  purpose  of  the  bridge  graft 
differs  somewhat  from  that  of  the  other  forms  of  grafting 
already  enumerated.  The  bridge  graft  has  for  its  chief 
purpose  the  preservation  of  a  tree,  rather  than  the  propaga- 
tion of  it.  The  principal  use  of  the  bridge  graft  is  to  preserve 
and  to  save  trees  which  have  been  either  girdled  by  rodents, 
such  as  mice  or  rabbits,  or  to  repair  trees  that  have  been 
injured  by  cultivating  implements.  To  use  this  graft  the 
injured  portion  of  the  tree  must  first  be  cleaned  out.  All 
of  the  ragged  edges  must  be  made  smooth.  The  bruised 
parts  must  be  cut  back  to  the  firm  bark.  In  order  to  loosen 


108  BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 

the  bark  so  the  cions  can  be  inserted,  a  longitudinal  slit 
should  be. made  both  above  and  below  the  wounded  area,  at 
the  points  where  the  cions  are  to  be  placed.  The  edge  of 
the  bark  should  be  slightly  raised  to.  give  a  point  of  entrance 
for  the  end  of  the  cion.  The  cions  must  be  cut  two  inches 
longer  than  the  space  to  be  bridged.  Each  end  of  the  cion 
is  bevelled  off  on  one  side,  and  the  bevelled  face  is  placed 


FIG.  48. — Bridge  grafting  of  a  wounded  trunk. 

against  the  wood  of  the  limb.  The  cions  are  placed  from  one 
and  one-half  to  two  inches  apart.  When  the  cions  are  in 
place  the  whole  surface  should  be  covered  with  grafting 
wax. 

Top  Working  of  a  Tree. — The  cleft  graft  and  the  bark 
graft  are  the  two  forms  of  grafting  used  in  the  top  working 
of  large  trees.  The  cleft  graft  is  by  far  the  most  important 
and  it  is  principally  used  in  working  over  old  trees.  It  is 


GRAFTING 


109 


preferable  to  graft  the  smaller  limbs  which  are  better  suited 
to  cleft  grafting  than  to  bark  grafting. 

The  top  working  of  a  tree  is  very  important  in  many 
instances.  It  enables  the  grower  to  change  an  inferior 
sort  to  a  good  variety,  after  the  tree  has  come  into  bearing. 
Occasionally  it  is  desirable  to  change  a  given  variety  after 
the  tree  has  become  large.  Top  working  the  tree  by  cleft 


FIG.  49. — An  apple  tree  top  worked  by  cleft  grafting. 

grafting  is  the  only  practical  method.  Sometimes  varieties 
are  sterile  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  graft  other  fertile 
varieties  into  these  barren  trees  before  any  fruit  will  set. 

Whenever  top  working  is  practised  to  any  great  extent, 
it  is  necessary  to  extend  the  operation  over  a  period  varying 
from  three  to  five  years.  A  period  of  this  length  is  necessary 
because  when  a  tree  is  severely  headed  back  the  balance 
between  the  top  and  the  root  is  broken.  As  a  result  of  this 


110  BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 

unbalanced  condition  a  large  number  of  water  sprouts  will 
be  formed.  The  excess  number  of  water  sprouts  can  be 
prevented  if  a  few  limbs  are  grafted  each  year.  This  practice 
enables  the  plant  to  maintain  a  better  equilibrium  and  there- 
fore furnishes  better  growing  conditions  for  the  grafts. 

Grafting  Waxes. — There  are  three  distinct  kinds  of  grafting 
waxes:  (1)  Beeswax  and  resin  waxes,  (2)  Pitch  waxes,  (3) 
Alcoholic  waxes.  Within  each  kind  of  wax  there  are  many 
modifications,  determined  largely  by  the  varying  proportion 
of  the  ingredients.  The  beeswax  and  resin  wax  is  generally 
used,  because  it  is  simple  to  make  and  is  composed  of  mate- 
rials that  are  easy  to  procure. 

BEESWAX  AND   RESIN  WAXES. 
FORMULA  1. 

Resin 4  pounds 

Beeswax 2        " 

Rendered  beef  tallow 1 

Place  the  ingredients  in  a  granite  or  an  iron  kettle  and  melt 
them  until  they  are  thoroughly  incorporated.  Remove  the 
kettle  from  the  fire  and  allow  the  mass  to  cool  slightly,  after 
which  pour  it  directly  into  a  vessel  containing  cold  water. 
As  soon  as  the  mass  is  cool  enough  to  handle,  remove  it  from 
the  water  and  work  it  with  the  hands  until  it  assumes  a 
light  brownish,  or  a  creamish  color.  The  wax  should  now 
be  made  into  balls  of  any  convenient  size  and  each  ball 
wrapped  in  oiled  paper  until  it  is  used. 

The  hands  are  first  greased  with  tallow  when  working  the 
grafting  wax.  The  tallow  prevents  the  sticking  of  the  wax 
to  the  hands. 

Where  a  very  hard  wax  is  wanted,  and  especially  in  the 
warmer  sections  of  the  country,  a  larger  quantity  of  resin 
should  be  added  to  the  mixture. 

PITCH  WAXES. 

FORMULA  2. 

Resin 2  pounds 

Burgundy  pitch 1        " 

Rendered  beef  tallow i       " 

Red  ochre  1 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  111 

Place  the  resin  and  the  white  pitch  into  a  granite  or  an 
iron  vessel  and  melt  them.  Melt  the  beef  tallow  in  a  separate 
vessel  and  add  it  while  hot  to  the  other  melted  mass.  Now 
slowly  stir  the  red  ochre  into  the  mixture.  This  can  be 
used  either  hot  or  cold. 

ALCOHOLIC  WAXES. 
LEFORT'S  LIQUID  GRAFTING  WAX. 

FORMULA  3. 

Resin 1  pound 

Rendered  beef  tallow 1  ounce 

Alcohol  8  ounces 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  propagation  by  budding? 

2.  When  is  the  proper  time  to  perform  budding? 

3.  Discuss  the  cutting  of  the  bud. 

4.  Discuss  the  growth  of  the  bud  after  it  is  inserted  in  the  stalk. 

5.  Differentiate  between  the  shield  and  the  plate  bud. 

6.  Tell  why  shield  budding  is  the  most  important  form  ol  budding. 

7.  Differentiate  between  grafting  and  budding. 

8.  What  is  the  purpose  and  the  value  of  grafting? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  the  terms  cion  and  stock? 

10.  Discuss  the  uses  of  grafting. 

11.  When  is  tongue  grafting  usually  performed? 

12.  What  is  the  difference  between  cleft  and  bark  grafting? 

13.  Where  is  the  bridge  graft  employed? 

14.  Discuss  the  top  working  of  trees. 

15.  Give  one  formula  for  each  kind  of  grafting  wax. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 

THE  great  damage  done  to  the  crops  grown  both  in  the 
home  as  well  as  in  the  commercial  garden  is  caused  by  several 
classes  of  pests.  These  pests,  briefly  stated,  are:  (1)  insects, 
(2)  plant  diseases,  (3)  physiological  troubles,  (4)  predaceous 
animals. 


FIG.  50. — Southern  cabbage  worm,  showing  complete  metamorphosis, 
a,  adult;  b,  egg  mass;  d,  larva  or  worm;  e,  cocoon.  (Chittenden,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Few  people  realize  the  enormous  loss  due  to  these  enemies, 
chiefly  because  many  growers  are  neither  familiar  with  the 
injury  by  the  insects,  nor  do  they  see  the  small  microscopic 
parasitic  plants  which  sap  the  vitality  from  the  growing 
host.  The  injury  usually  develops  slowly,  and  when  it  is 
discovered  it  is  too  late  to  remedy  the  damage.  Many 
people,  who  are  close  observers,  know  their  .plants  are  not 
doing  as  well  as  they  should,  but  they  are  not  familiar  enough 
with  the  habits  of  the  insects  or  appearance  of  the  plant 
diseases  to  correctly  diagnose  the  trouble. 


INSECTS 


113 


INSECTS. 

The  insects  are  divided  into  three  groups:  (1)  the  biting 
or  chewing  insects,  (2)  the  boring  insects,  (3)  the  sucking 
insects. 

In  order  to  understand  insect  injury,  the  reader  must  first 
know  the  various  stages  of  the  life  history  through  which 
insects  pass.  The  changes  in  the  life  of  an  insect  are  known 
as  metamorphosis.  Complete  and  incomplete  metamor- 
phosis are  recognized  in  the  life  of  the  different  insects. 


FIG.  51. — Showing  the  successive  stages  of  the  squash  bug  which  is  the 
incomplete  metamorphosis.     (Folsom.) 

Complete  metamorphosis  means  that  the  insect  passes 
through  four  complete  changes  during  its  life.  Beginning 
with  the  adult,  we  arrange  the  stages  in  the  life  history 
in  the  following  order:  (1)  the  egg  stage,  (2)  the  larva  stage, 
(3)  the  pupa  stage,  (4)  the  adult  stage.  The  adult  lays  the 
egg  from  which  hatches  the  little  worm  or  the  larva.  The 
worm  eats  the  plant  upon  which  it  is  placed,  continues  to 
grow  larger  and  to  consume  more  of  the  plant  tissue  until 
it  finally  reaches  its  full  growth.  When  this  feeding  period 
is  finished,  the  worm  goes  into  a  quiescent  stage,  and  this 
stage  is  called  the  pupa.  During  the  pupa  stage  the  insect 
8 


114'  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 

does  no  damage,  but  remains  quiet  while  internal  changes 
are  taking  place,  and  an  entire  reorganization  of  its  body 
goes  on.  When  the  transformation  period  is  complete  the 
insect  emerges  from  the  pupa  case  or  the  cocoon  as  a  full- 
grown  insect,  as,  for  example,  a  butterfly,  a  moth,  or  a 
beetle.  These  forms  are  called  the  adults.  By  far  the 
greatest  damage  which  is  done  by  most  of  the  insects  is  in 
the  larva  or  the  worm  stage,  but  a  few  adult  insects  do  great 
damage.  It  is  because  of  this  change  in  the  form  of  an 
insect  that  it  becomes  imperative  for  the  grower  to  know 
the  life  history  of  an  insect  before  adequate  measures  of 
control  can  be  used. 

Incomplete  metamorphosis  is,  as  the  term  signifies,  an 
incomplete  change  in  the  development  of  an  insect.  The 
adult  form  is  reached  without  going  through  the  four  stages 
necessary  in  complete  metamorphosis.  In  incomplete  meta- 
morphosis the  insect  completes  its  life  history  without 
radical  changes  in  its  form.  The  insect  hatches  from  the  egg 
into  a  form  resembling  the  adult,  although  considerably 
smaller  and  without  wings.  It  begins  to  feed  at  once  on  its 
food  plant  and  continues  to  feed  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter 
period  of  time,  going  through  several  moults,  in  which  it  sheds 
its  skin  when  it  gets  too  large  for  the  old  one.  After  passing 
through  several  of  these  moults,  the  number  being  determined 
by  the  species  and  the  food  supply,  the  nymph  becomes  an 
adult.  Such  insects  as  the  common  grasshopper,  the  cock- 
roaches, the  bugs,  and  several  more  belong  to  this  class. 

The  growth  of  insects  with  incomplete  metamorphosis  is 
somewhat  different  from  those  with  complete  metamorphosis. 
It  is  a  known  fact  that  the  skin  of  an  insect  hardens,  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  horny  substance  known  as  chit  in.  This 
hardening  usually  occurs  to  a  greater  extent  in  the  adults 
than  in  the  young.  However,  in  all  insects  with  incomplete 
metamorphosis  the  skin  soon  becomes  so  firm  that  it  cannot 
stretch,  and  consequently  this  hardening  prevents  any 
more  growth  from  taking  place.  The  result  is  that  the  skin 
becomes  too  small,  and  it  must  be  shed  before  the  insect  can 
grow.  As  the  old  skin  grows  hard  a  new  skin  forms  under  it 
and  the  old  hardened  skin  splits  and  bursts  open,  permitting 


INSECTS  115 

the  insect  to  crawl  out,  clothed  in  a  new  skin  which  stretches 
for  a  short  time.  This  new  skin  finally  hardens  again,  and 
the  process  must  be  repeated.  After  several  such  moults, 
the  insect  reaches  the  adult  stage  and  never  passes  through  a 
quiescent  or  a  pupa  stage,  but  always  resembles  the  parent. 

Control  Measures  for  Insects. — Insecticides  are  used  for  the 
control  or  the  prevention  of  insect  injury.  An  insecticide 
may  be  defined  as  a  chemical,  either  liquid  or  powder,  that 
is  used  for  the  killing  or  the  repelling  of  insects.  An  insecti- 
cide should  be  applied  to  the  plant  before  any  great  amount 
of  damage  is  done. 

Insecticides  are  divided  into  two  classes,  according  to  the 
way  in  which  they  control  the  insect,  and  based  upon  the 
manner  in  which  the  insect  does  its  feeding  upon  the  plant. 
When  the  insect  devours  or  eats  up  the  plant  it  is  called  a 
chewing  or  biting  insect!  It  is  apparent  that  if  some  poison 
is  deposited  upon  the  plant  where  such  insects  are  feeding, 
it  will  kill  the  insect  enemy.  In  such  case  the  insect  is 
destroyed  by  the  direct  effect  of  the  poison  acting  through 
its  digestive  tract.  The  great  majority  of  the  insecticides 
used  for  this'  purpose  contain  arsenic  as  the  active  poison, 
and  it  is  from  this  source  that  the  name  arsenical  insecticide 
has  been  derived.  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead  are  the 
most  common  arsenical  poisons  for  the  biting  insects.  Com- 
mon examples  of  chewing  insects  are  the  cabbage  worms, 
the  web  worms,  and  all  of  the  caterpillars. 

Besides  the  eating  or  the  chewing  insects  there  is  another 
large  class,  known  as  the  sucking  insects,  that  is  exceptionally 
injurious  to  growing  plants.  These  are  the  most  injurious 
to  the  woody  plants.  Sucking  insects  cannot  be  killed  by 
any  arsenical  spray,  because  they  do  not  eat  the  plant 
tissue,  and  consequently  it  is  a  waste  of  time  and  a  needless 
expense  to  apply  arsenical  sprays  of  any  kind  to  the  plant. 
Sucking  insects,  instead  of  devouring  any  part  of  the  plant, 
insert  their  sharp  mouth  parts,  which  are  constructed  in  the 
form  of  a  long,  narrow,  cylindrical  tube,  through  the  plant 
tissue  and  suck  out  the  plant  juices.  An  insect  that  feeds 
in  such  a  manner  cannot  be  killed  by  coating  the  surface  of 
the  leaves  or  the  stems  with  any  stomach  poison,  because 


116  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 

it  is  impossible  for  the  poison  to  reach  the  stomach  of  the 
insect.  Hence,  in  order  to  kill  sucking  insects,  some  material 
that  will  either  smother  the  insect  by  clogging  up  the  spiracles 
or  the  openings  of  the  breathing  system,  or  kill  it  by  the 
corrosive  action  on  the  body  of  the  insect,  must  be  used. 
Insecticides  of  this  class  are  called  contact  insecticides. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  tobacco  sprays,  and  lime  sulphur  are 
the  most  common  sprays  for  the  sucking  insects.  Common 
examples  of  sucking  insects  are  the  scale  insects,  the  plant 
lice,  and  many  others. 

Besides  the  biting  and  the  sucking  insects,  a  third  class 
of  insects  exists  that  must  be  controlled  in  still  another  way. 
This  group  includes  those  insects  that  live  in  the  tissue  of  the 
plant,  and  hence  cannot  be  reached  by  either  the  arsenical 
or  the  contact  insecticides.  This  class  of  insects  includes 
all  forms  of  borers,  which  burrow  into  the  plant  and  spend 
their  life  within  the  plant  tissue. 

There  are  two  methods  for  the  control  of  the  boring  insects, 
namely,  by  the  use  of  repellents,  which  are  chemicals  used  to 
prevent  the  attack  of  the  insect,  and  by  the  digging  out  by 
hand  of  the  insects  after  they  have  entered  the  "plant.  The 
boring  insects  can  be  destroyed  by  first  locating  the  burrows 
which  are  usually  detected  by  the  exudation  of  gummy 
material,  covered  by  the  chewings  and  the  castings  of  the 
insect.  By  the  use  of  a  sharp  knife  the  bark  can  be  cut  away 
and  the  larva  killed.  Another  method  is  to  probe  in  the 
burrows  with  a  piece  of  wire,  thus  killing  the  larva.  Com- 
mon examples  of  the  boring  insects  are  the  peach  tree  borer 
and  the  locust  borer. 

Repellents. — Repellents  are  chemicals  with  unpleasant 
odors.  These  materials  are  placed  either  on  the  ground 
around  the  plants  or  distributed  over  the  plants  themselves. 
By  the  giving  off  of  unpleasant'  odors  they  drive  the  insects 
away  and  in  this  manner  the  plants  are  saved  from  destruc- 
tion. Turpentine  and  carbolic  acid  are  often  used  as  repel- 
lents. These  materials  are  usually  mixed  with  ashes  or  any 
dry  powder  and  either  spread  on  the  ground  around  the  plant 
or  dusted  over  the  leaves.  Repellents  are  effective  in  con- 
trolling the  striped  cucumber  beetle  and  many  other  insects. 


PLANT  DISEASES  117 

Poisoned  Bait. — Poisoned  bait  is  very  effective  against 
certain  kinds  of  insects,  namely,  the  cutworms.  Poisoned 
bait  is  made  by  dipping  freshly  cut  clover  into  a  strong 
mixture  of  Paris  green  and  water  or  by  making  a  stiff  mash, 
composed  of  6  pounds  of  bran  to  which  about  \  pound  of 
Paris  green  or  white  arsenic  is  added.  Use  only  enough 
water  to  hold  the  bran  together.  A  small  quantity  of  sugar 
or  molasses  is  added  to  make  it  sweet.  The  bait  is  then 
placed  in  small  piles  which  are  scattered  around  the  area  to  be 
planted.  The  best  results  will  be  secured  if  the  baiting  is 
done  a  few  days  before  the  time  of  planting. 

PLANT   DISEASES. 

The  diseases  that  affect  the  cultivated  plants  may  be 
arbitrarily  divided  into :  fungous  diseases,  bacterial  diseases, 
and  physiological  troubles. 

As  we  go  more  deeply  into  the  nature  of  the  changes  which 
take  place  in  the  plant  which  are  brought  about  by  disease, 
it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  different  kinds. 
A  plant  may  be  diseased  as  a  whole,  because  all  or  practically 
all  of  its  tissue  is  in  a  diseased  condition,  such  as  occurs 
when  a  fungous  or  a  parasitic  plant  invades  all  parts  of  the 
host.  Again,  a  plant  may  die  throughout,  because  some 
organ  which  is  essential  to  its  life  is  seriously  affected,  as  for 
example  when  the  roots  rot,  due  to  the  presence  of  some 
parasite  which  hinders  the  supply  of  plant  food.  In  a  large 
number  of  cases  we  find  the  disease  to  be  purely  local  and 
never  extending  into  the  rest  of  the  tissue  beyond  that  which 
is  affected,  and  which  only  causes  death  to  the  affected  part. 

Symptoms  of  Disease. — Many  amateurs  and  all  experienced 
growers  know  that  certain  symptoms  are  present  in  the  sick 
plant  as  well  as  in  the  sick  animal.  The  symptoms  in  a  sick 
plant  vary  according  to  the  kind  of  disease.  Many  symp- 
toms are  often  present  which  indicate  that  the  plant  is  not 
in  a  healthy  condition,  and  it  should  be  attended  to  at  once, 
but  further  diagnosis  is  difficult. 

Generally  speaking,  a  common  symptom  in  a  physiological 
trouble  is  the  yellowing  of  the  leaves  accompanied  by  wilting 


118 


PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 


of  the  plant.  This  is  usually  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the 
transpiration  of  water  from  the  leaves  is  greater  than  the 
absorption  by  the  roots.  A  similar  condition  is  also  noted 
when  insects,  such  as  the  cutworms  or  the  wireworms  are 

eating  the  roots,  thus 
cutting  off  the  supply 
of  food  and  water  and 
causing  the  plant  to  turn 
yellow.  The  yellowing 
of  plants  also  results 
from  the  presence  of 
gases,  either  in  the  atmos- 
phere or  in  the  soil. 
This  trouble  is  often 
found  in  cities  where 
leaks  occur  in  the  gas 
mains,  and  it  does  great 
damage  to  shade  trees 
and  to  ornamental 
shrubs.  Where  the  root 
and  the  crown  of  the 
plant  are  injured  from 
gas  it  results  in  the 
improper  physiological 
process  going  on,  which 
in  turn  prevents  the 
transpiration  of  water 
and  the  entire  plant  is 
affected. 

The  turning  brown  of 
little  patchs  on  the  leaf 
with  the  dead  portion 
finally  falling  out,  leav- 
ing a  small  hole  in  the 
leaf,  is  usually  a  clear  symptom  of  fungous  trouble.  The  brown 
and  the  discolored  areas  on  fruit,  such  as  the  rots  of  the  apple 
or  the  peach,  are  the  outward  signs  of  a  fungous  disease. 
The  abnormal  swelling  of  certain  portions  of  some  plants 
are  indications  that  they  are  affected  with  some  organism. 


FIG.  52. — A  diseased  tomato  plant. 


PLANT  DISEASES 


119 


Two  well-defined  examples  of  abnormal  swellings  are  the 
black  knot  on  the  plum  or  the  cheny  and  the  crown  gall  on 
nursery  stock.  The  sudden  wilting  of  a  plant  is  usually 
indicative  of  a  bacterial  trouble,  which  attacks  the  plant 
suddenly  and  cuts  off  the  water  supply  by  clogging  up  the 
water-carrying  ducts  or  canals.  In  addition  to  the  symptoms 
of  unhealthy  plants  already  mentioned  several  more  exist 
which  can  easily  be  detected  where  the  plant  is  carefully 
studied. 


FIG.  53. — A  diseased  fruit. 

Fungous  Diseases. — These  diseases  are  caused  by  small, 
microscopic,  parasitic  plants  living  upon  the  tissue  and 
sapping  the  vitality  from  the  host.  Some  fungous  diseases 
spread  to  all  parts  of  the  plants,  such  as  the  leaf  spot  of  the 
apple,  while  others  are  local  and  only  affect  a  small  portion, 
as  the  black  knot  on  the  plum  or  the  cherry.  The  greatest 
damage  to  our  cultivated  plants  may  be  attributed  to  the 
fungous  diseases,  because  they  are  more  numerous  and  affect 
the  root,  stem,  leaves,  and  fruits.  The  potato  scab  and  the 
apple  scab  are  good  examples  of  fungous  diseases. 

Control  Measures  for  Diseases. — There  are  various  means 
at  our  command  for  the  control  of  many  of  the  diseases  that 
affect  our  cultivated  plants.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that 
different  methods  must  be  adopted  for  the  different  diseases 
on  the  plants  just  the  same  as  different  remedies  must  be 
used  for  the  control  of  diseases  in  the  human  svstem. 


120  PESTS  Of  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 

& 

Spraying,  dusting,  and  controlling  the  conditions  under 
which  the  plants  are  grown  and  removing  the  affected  parts 
are  some  of  the  methods  employed  to  save  our  economic 
plants  from  destruction  from  the  various  diseases  that  prey 
upon  them.  It  is  evident  that  certain  diseases  as  well  as 
certain  insects  cannot  be  controlled  by  spraying,  and  also 
that  several  sprays  are  needed  to  control  the  different  kinds 
of  diseases. 

The  fungous  diseases  can  usually  be  controlled  or  at  least 
held  in  check  by  the  application  of  fungicides  to  the  plant. 
The  fungicide  which  is  a  chemical  compound  of  some  kind 
is  either  placed  in  water  and  sprayed  on  the  plant  or  dusted 
on  by  some  method. 

The  bacterial  diseases  cannot  be  controlled  by  the  applica- 
tion of  any  fungicide  and  the  only  means  of  control  is  to  cut 
away  the  affected  part  or  destroy  the  entire  plant. 

The  following  troubles  are  a  few  that  cannot  be  controlled 
by  spraying,  but  must  be  held  in  check  by  other  means: 
peach  yellows,  little  peach,  potato  scab,  melon  wilt,  pear 
blight,  apple-twig  blight,  and  dry  rot  of  the  potato. 

Bacterial  Diseases. — Bacterial  diseases  are  caused  by  the 
action  of  small  microscopic  organisms  commonly  known  as 
bacteria.  These  are  very  small,  usually  one-celled  plants 
that  live  for  the  most  part  in  the  cell  sap  or  in  the  juices 
found  in  the  plant  tissue.  From  the  nature  of  their  attack 
it  is  apparent  that  they  are  responsible  for  a  disease  that 
from  its  nature  is  extremely  difficult  to  control.  Since  the 
bacteria  are  internal,  either  precautionary  or  very  drastic 
means  must  be  devised  to  hold  them  in  check. 

Bacteria  ordinarily  are  extremely  simple  in  form,  and  are 
usually  confined  to  three  types,  namely  spheres,  cylindrical 
rods  of  greater  or  less  length,  and  spiral  rods.  In  size  they 
are  very  minute,  being  by  far  the  smallest  living  organisms 
known,  and  demanding  the  highest  power  of  the  microscope 
for  their  study. 

Many  bacteria  have  the  power  of  motion,  which  is  produced 
by  slender,  motile  hairs  arising  from  their  bodies.  By  moving 
these  little  hairs  back  and  forth  the  bacteria  produce  loco- 
motion and  change  their  position.  These  hairs  are  called 


PLANT  DISEASES 


121 


flagella.  Bacteria  are  divided  into  three  easily  recognizable 
divisions:  (1)  Coccus  or  spherical  bacteria,  (2)  bacillus  or 
rod-shaped  bacteria,  (3)  spirillum  or  spiral  bacteria. 

Multiplication  of  Bacteria. — The  common  method  of  repro- 
duction of  bacteria  is  by  simple  division.  Although  this 
method  is  common  to  all  bacteria,  there  are  some  forms 
which  frequently  reproduce  themselves  by  the  formation  of 


FIG.  54. — Several  forms  of  bacteria  greatly  enlarged.     (After  A.  Fisher.) 

reproductive  bodies  called  spores.  The  spores  are  formed  in 
the  body  of  the  organism  in  the  shape  of  small  rounded 
masses,  and  later  the  body  bursts  open  and  the  spores  are 
set  free.  The  spores  are  known  as  resting  forms  and  their 
function  seems  to  be  to  enable  the  bacteria  to  exist  through 
unfavorable  conditions.  The  spores  have  great  vitality  and 
they  can  be  subjected  to  high  temperature  and  to  long  periods 
of  drought  without  suffering  from  such  treatment. 


122  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 

The  most  important  factor  connected  with  the  life  of 
bacteria  is  their  exceptionally  rapid  power  of  multiplication. 
The  division  of  the  bacteria  which  results  in  two  plants 
often  takes  place  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  and  in  less  than 
half  that  time  each  division  is  again  ready  to  reproduce. 
The  reproduction  in  this  ratio  results  in  an  increase  in 
number  which  is  almost  inconceivable. 

Bacteria  are  also  divided  into  two  kinds,  with  regard  to 
their  needs  for  oxygen.  Most  bacteria  demand  oxygen  to 
enable  them  to  grow,  but  there  are  some  species,  and  these 
are  quite  numerous,  that  can  live  without  a  supply  of  oxygen, 
and  in  fact  can  only  grow  and  multiply  when  in  an  atmosphere 
devoid  of  oxygen. 

Bacteria  bear  the  same  relation  to  temperature  as  do 
other  ordinary  living  organisms.  If  the  temperature  is  high 
the  multiplication  of  the  bacteria  is  more  rapid,  and  as  the 
temperature  approaches  the  freezing-point,  the  activity  of 
the  bacteria  ceases.  The  temperature  at  which  the  maximum 
growth  of  bacteria  occurs  is  quite  variable  and  varies  from 
70°  F.  to  about  95°  F.,  while  other  forms  will  grow  well  at 
still  higher  temperatures. 

Environment  and  Soil  Sanitation. — The  environment  in 
which  a  plant  is  grown  regulates  to  a  large  degree  the  preva- 
lence of  certain  diseases.  The  "  damping  off"  of  seedlings  is 
commonly  due  to  poor  environment.  While  it  is  known  there 
is  a  definite  cause  for  the  trouble  in  the  form  of  a  fungus, 
it  is  conceded  that  if  the  proper  growing  conditions  are 
maintained,  the  plants  will  not  be  attacked  by  this  fungus. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  conclusively  that  if  good  fresh 
air  is  given,  the  proper  temperature  is  maintained,  and  the 
correct  amount  of  water  is  given  at  the  right  time,  the 
seedlings  will  not  be  attacked  by  the  fungi  that  cause  this 
trouble.  An  oversupply  of  water  accompanied  by  excessive 
heat  affords  ideal  conditions  for  the  growth  of  fungus  troubles 
which  often  attack  the  plant  and  cause  serious  injury.  The 
damping  off  of  seedlings,  while  due  primarily  to  a  parasitic 
growth  at  the  crown  of  the  plant,  is  brought  about  by  unfa- 
vorable conditions  of  growth  of  the  parent  plant  and  can 
only  be  controlled  by  regulating  the  conditions  under  which 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  TROUBLES  123 

the  plant  is  growing.  The  control  for  this  trouble  usually 
means  the  cleaning  out  of  all  diseased  plants,  withholding 
the  water  supply,  and  providing  for  better  ventilation. 

The  cleaning  up  of  the  soil  by  steam  sterilization  or  by  the 
treating  of  it  with  formalin  is  also  effective  in  destroying 
certain  fungous  diseases  which  are  found  in  the  soil.  These 
fungi  oftentimes  remain  alive  for  a  number  of  years  and 
attack  the  plants  when  they  are  planted. 

It  is  always  advisable,  therefore,  to  have  the  soil  clean 
and  free  from  fungi.  The  plants  should  be  grown  where  they 
will  have  plenty  of  sunshine  and  have  a  good  circulation  of 
fresh  air  so  that  the  damp  air  will  be  blown  away  and  never 
allowed  to  collect  about  the  seedlings. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL   TROUBLES. 

Any  serious  disturbance  in  the  life  processes  of  the  plant 
which  cannot  be  attributed  to  an  organic  factor,  such  as 
insects,  fungus  or  bacteria,  is  called  a  physiological  trouble. 
The  peach  yellows  and  the  little  peach  are  two  common 
examples  of  injury  that  are  included  under  physiological 
trouble.  The  most  recent  work  on  physiological  troubles 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  plants  are  growing  under  unfavor- 
able conditions,  and  that  there  is  a  lack  of  certain  elements 
in  the  soil  which  produces  these  troubles.  In  fact  physio- 
logical troubles  are  not  well  understood,  although  more 
information  is  being  gained  every  year  and  perhaps  in  the 
near  future  more  suggestions  can  be  offered. 

Control  Measures  of  Physiological  Troubles. — No  definite 
remedial  measures  are  at  our  disposal  for  the  control  of  the 
so-called  physiological  troubles.  By  that  is  meant  that  it  is 
of  no  avail  to  spray  or  to  treat  the  plant  with  any  solution 
for  the  control  of  this  class  of  troubles.  A  physiological 
trouble,  as  the  term  implies,  is  some  interference  with  the 
natural  process  of  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  is  thought 
to  be  the  result  of  insufficient  iron  or  some  other  element 
in  the  soil. 

The  only  means  of  control,  therefore,  would  be  to  supply  the 
material  that  is  lacking,  so  the  plant  will  develop  normally. 


124  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 

INJURY  BY   PREDACEOUS   ANIMALS. 

Predaceous  animals  include  all  rodents,  such  as  mice, 
rabbits,  woodchucks,  and  moles.  The  loss  due  to  this  class 
of  pests  is  confined  principally  to  the  younger  trees  and  to 
bushes,  yet  there  are  many  herbaceous  plants  in  the  garden 
like  the  cabbage,  lettuce,  etc.,  which  are  often  attacked  and 
severely  injured.  The  loss  in  the  aggregate  due  to  rodents 
is  considerable,  when  all  plants  are  included.  The  amount 
of  injury  would  be  far  less  than  it  is  if  the  rubbish  and  the 
grasses  which  serve  as  places  of  concealment  were  destroyed . 
In  the  average  home  orchard  and  in  the  garden  the  danger 
of  rodent  injury  is  greater  than  in  a  commercial  plantation, 
because  the  possible  means  of  protection  for  the  plants  are 
more  generally  disregarded. 

Control  Measures  for  Predaceous  Animals. — The  injury  done 
to  plants  by  predaceous  animals  is  due  to  the  eating  of  the 
plant  tissue  by  certain  destructive  rodents,  such  as  mice, 
rabbits,  or  woodchucks.  The  control  for  such  injury  must 
of  necessity  be  one  of  prevention  rather  than  one  of  destruc- 
tion. The  control  of  the  predaceous  animals  is  accomplished 
by  protecting  the  plant  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  the  animals 
away  from  the  plants. 

There  are  various  ways  and  means  which  are  used  for  the 
protection  of  our  plants.  The  banking  or  mounding  of  soil 
about  the  trunk  of  the  trees  is  often  used.  The  mounding 
is  not  so  very  effective  in  itself,  but  when  used  in  conjunction 
with  other  mechanical  devices  aids  materially  in  the  protec- 
tion of  trees.  Mice  in  particular  rarely  ever  injure  trees, 
unless  grass,  manure  or  trash  is  found  near  their  bases.  For 
mounding  to  be  effective  the  grass  must  first  be  cleared  away 
from  the  base  of  the  tree,  and  the  soil  thoroughly  firmed 
about  the  base  of  the  trunk.  A  covering  of  cinders  well 
pressed  into  the  soil  should  cap  each  mound.  The  mound 
should  be  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
base  and  from  five  to  six  inches  in  height.  The  mound 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  throughout  the  year,  but  it 
must  be  repaired  from  time  to  time  to  insure  its  efficiency. 

The  most  complete  and  the  most  ideal  plant  protector 


INJURY  BY  PREDACEOUS  ANIMALS 


125 


is  a  wire  screen.    This  protector  is  made  of  screen,  the  meshes 
of  which  vary  in  size  from  one-eighth    to  one-half   inch, 


FIG.  55.— Tree  protected  by  small 
mesh  poultry  netting.  (After  Ballou, 
Ohio  Agricultural  Bulletin  No.  208.) 


FIG.  56. — A  combination  of 
wire  cloth  and  building  paper 
as  a  tree  protector.  (After 
Ballou,  Ohio  Agricultural  Bul- 
letin No.  208.) 


but  the  usual  size  is  one-fourth  inch.  The  wire  screen 
protector  is  more  expensive  than  the  earth  mound,  but 
nevertheless  it  is  considerably  more  effective  against  all 


126  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 

kinds  of  rodents  which  prey  upon  the  stems  of  young  trees. 
The  screen  protector  is  light  and  open  and  presents  the  least 
obstruction  to  strong  winds,  yet  at  the  same  time  admits 
the  sun  and  the  air.  The  wire  screen  neither  affords  any 
dark  nor  obscure  places  for  the  concealment  of  any  kind  of 
injurious  insect  pests. 

The  wire  screen  protectors  vary  in  size,  depending  primarily 
upon  the  size  of  the  tree.  A  good  size  that  seems  to  be 
adapted  to  many  trees  is  twelve  by  twenty-four  inches. 
This  protector  is  really  nothing  more  than  a  piece  of  gal- 
vanized wire  cloth  with  one-fourth-inch  meshes.  It  is  then 
bent  or  rolled  over  a  small,  round  piece  of  wood,  shaping 
it  into  a  cylinder  about  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches  in 
diameter.  The  cylinder  is  then  placed  about  the  stem  of  the 
tree  where  its  own  tension  will  hold  it  in  place.  A  protector 
made  from  the  ordinary  one-inch  mesh,  galvanized  chicken 
wire  is  quite  effective  against  rabbits,  but  this  size  of  wire 
will  not  protect  the  trees  from  mice.  Spiral  wire  protectors 
are  sometimes  made  from  a  galvanized  iron  wire.  The 
spiral  protectors  are  in  the  form  of  a  spiral  or  a  spring,  and 
while  they  are  effective  against  rabbits  they  are  not  to  be 
recommended  generally.  Their  chief  drawback  is  the  large 
spaces  between  the  wires,  which  permit  the  rodents  either  to 
squeeze  through  entirely  or  to  push  their  heads  in  far  enough 
to  reach  the  base  of  the  tree. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  effective  plant  protectors  for  all 
purposes  is  found  in  the  wood  veneer  protector.  This  style 
is  quite  effective  against  all  kinds  of  rodents.  However, 
they  are  close  and  tight,  and  exclude  almost  all  the  light,  and 
often  various  forms  of  insects  harbor  in  the  crevices  and  the 
rough  portion  of  the  bark  and  may  become  troublesome. 
The  veneer  protectors  should  be  removed  from  the  trees 
during  the  summer  and  replaced  before  winter. 

In  addition  to  the  wire  protectors  already  mentioned,  which 
are  classed  as  more  or  less  commercial  articles,  there  are 
several  home  devices  which  may  be  used  with  varying  degrees 
of  success.  Cornstalks,  for  instance,  are  very  effective 
against  rabbits  and  ground  hogs,  and  at  the  same  time  have 
the  advantage  of  being  very  cheap.  There  is  practically  no 


INJURY  BY  PREDACEOUS  ANIMALS 


127 


cost  to  this  material.  The  stalks  should  be  selected  as  they 
come  from  the  field  and  all  of  the  leaves  stripped  off.  Square 
the  ends  of  the  stalks  by  laying  them  on  a  board  or  a  box  and 
using  a  large  knife.  Cut  the  stalks  into  pieces  about  two  feet 
in  length.  When  the  stalks  are  pre- 
pared five  or  six  of  them  are  bound 
firmly  around  the  stem  of  the  young 
tree. 

A  combination  of  the  cornstalk  and 
the  wire-cloth  protector  is  popular  in 
some  sections.  This  combination 
protector  is  made  by  an  eight-  or  a 
ten-inch  wire-cloth  cylinder  about 
the  base  of  the  cornstalk  protector. 
If  the  tree  has  previously  been  well 
mounded  up  with  soil,  this  combina- 
tion protector  completely  baffles  all 
kinds  of  rodents  and  makes  the  trees 
quite  secure  from  their  attacks. 

Cylinders  made  from  either  the 
common  heavy  wrapping  paper  or  the 
building  paper  make  a  very  effective 
and  a  secure  protection  for  the  trees. 
The  greatest  drawback  to  this  pro- 
tector is  its  fragility  and  its  short 
length  of  life.  Only  the  heaviest 
wrapping  paper  should  be  used,  and  a 
good  grade  of  building  paper  is  pre- 
ferred. These  wrappers  are  placed 
on  the  trees — either  in  the  form  of  a 
cylinder  or  wrapped  spirally  around 
the  stem  to  the  desired  height.  When 
the  spiral  method  is  adopted  the 
paper  is  cut  into  narrow  strips.  Two 
points  in  favor  of  the  spiral  form  are,  that  a  crooked-bodied 
tree  can  be  more  closely  and  more  neatly  covered,  and 
that  it  is  more  resistant  to  the  strong  winds. 

Cultural  Control  Measures. — The  control  of  all  pests  affect- 
ing cultivated  plants  can  be  materially  affected  by  cultural 
practices.  Certain  classes  of  pests,  particularly  insects,  can 


FIG.  57. — A  tree  protec- 
tor made  by  tying  corn- 
stalks around  it.  (After 
Ballou,  Ohio  Agricultural 
Bulletin  No.  208.) 


128  PESTS  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS 

be  controlled  easier  than  certain  others,  but  relief  can  be 
had  from  many  pests  by  following  good  cultural  methods. 

Crop  rotation  is  an  important  factor  in  controlling  some 
of  our  plant  troubles.  Rotation  is  beneficial  in  combating 
those  insects  and  diseases  that  remain  in  the  soil  over  winter 
and  which  are  not  killed  by  the  cold  weather.  Besides  insects 
there  are  many  diseases  which  are  found  in  the  soil  and  that 
will  grow  on  one  class  of  plants  but  will  not  attack  other 
classes.  These  diseases  therefore  can  be  killed  out  by  the 
growing  of  a  different  crop  on  that  land.  For  this  class  of 
diseases  it  is  never  advisable  to  grow  the  same  kind  of  a  crop 
on  a  piece  of  land  any  two  years  in  succession.  By  rotating 
the  crops  we  not  only  control  many  insects  and  diseases  but 
we  improve  the  general  condition  of  the  soil  as  well. 

Fall  plowing  is  valuable  in  destroying  some  insects.  Many 
insects  pass  part  of  their  life  history  in  the  ground.  These 
insects  make  small  burrows  or  homes  in  which  they  spend 
the  winter.  If  they  are  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  they 
will  live  through  the  cold  weather,  but  if  the  soil  is  plowed 
up  in  the  fall  and  the  insects  exposed  to  the  cold,  a  great 
many  of  them  are  killed.  This  same  treatment  is  valuable  in 
destroying  the  eggs  of  many  other  insects  that  lay  them  in 
the  ground.  When  the  eggs  are  exposed  to  the  winter 
weather  they  are  also  killed. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Describe  the  four  classes  of  pests  that  attack  plants. 

2.  Is  the  damage  done  to  plants  by  these  pests  large  or  small? 

3.  Into  what  three  classes  are  the  insects  divided? 

4.  What  is  complete  and  incomplete  metamorphosis? 

5.  Give  the  four  stages  in  complete  metamorphosis. 

6.  Give  the  three  stages  in  incomplete  metamorphosis. 

7.  How  does  an  insect  with  incomplete  metamorphosis  grow? 

8.  Name  and  describe  the  three  divisions  into  which  plant  diseases  are 
divided. 

9.  Discuss  some  of  the  symptoms  of  a  diseased  plant. 
10.  Discuss  bacterial  and  fungous  diseases. 

.     11.  Name  and  describe  the  three  classes  of  bacteria. 

12.  How  do  bacteria  multiply? 

13.  Discuss  the  injury  to  plants  due  to  predaceous  animals. 

14.  Discuss  physiological  troubles  of  plants. 

15.  How  can  physiological  troubles  be  controlled? 

16.  Discuss. the  means  of  control  for  insects  and  diseases. 

17.  Describe  several  devices  for  the  control  of  predaceous  animals. 

18.  What  is  meant  by  cultural  control  measures  for  plant  pests? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS. 

SPRAY  MACHINERY. 

THE  most  improved  spray  machinery  is  necessary  for 
efficient  work.  Without  effective  spraying  there  is  seldom 
any  good  that  ever  results  from  the  practice.  There  is  no 
other  operation  in  horticultural  practices  that  calls  for  so 
thorough  work  as  does  the  application  of  spray  materials  to 
all  plants.  It  has  been  found  that  the  most  effective  work 
can  be  done  with  those  machines  which  permit  of  high  pres- 
sure. This  does  not  mean  that  the  small  hand  sprayers  are 
not  valuable,  but  where  the  orchard  or  garden  is  large  enough 
to  warrant  the  purchase  of  a  large  machine  better  spraying 
can  be  accomplished. 

Kinds  of  Sprayers. — There  are  six  distinct  types  of  sprayers 
on  the  market.  Each  type  is  made  primarily  for  certain 
kinds  of  spraying.  The  capacity  of  each  one  varies,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  several  types  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  size  of  the  sprayer.  The  six  types  are :  (1)  the  hand  atom- 
izer, (2)  the  bucket  sprayer,  (3)  the  automatic  compressed- 
air  sprayer,  (4)  the  barrel  sprayer,  (5)  the  twin-cylinder  hand 
sprayer,  (6)  the  power  sprayer,  of  which  there  are  three  sizes, 
namely,  the  pony  outfit,  the  medium-sized  sprayer,  and  the 
large  sprayer. 

Hand  Atomizer. — The  hand  atomizer  is  the  most  simple 
kind  of  a  sprayer.  It  consists  of  a  small  can  or  glass  jar 
attached  to  a  tube  into  which  fits  a  piston.  The  piston  is 
attached  to  a  handle  and  by  working  it  back  and  forth  the 
spray  material  is  forced  out  on  the  plant.  This  sprayer  is  too 
small  to  be  of  much  value  only  on  small  plants. 

Bucket  Sprayer. — The  bucket  sprayer  is  the  next  larger  size 
and  does  better  work.  This  sprayer  consists  of  a  small 
9 


130     SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 

pump  which  usually  has  two  small  brass  ball  valves.  The 
pump  cylinder  and  air  chamber  is  usually  made  of  brass. 
This  pump  is  capable  of  developing  considerable  pressure 
and  is  valuable  for  spraying  many  kinds  of  plants.  The 
pump  is  separate  and  in  order  to  spray  it  must  be  set  into  a 
bucket  containing  the  spray  material.  This  is  the  chief 
drawback  to  this  sprayer,  since  it  is  awkward  to  carry  around 
in  an  open  bucket  filled  with  the  spray  mixture.  A  small 
piece  of  hose  and  a  spray  nozzle  is  attached  to  this  pump. 


FIG.  58. — A  good  hand  sprayer  for  small  truck  and  bush  fruits. 
(The  Deming  Company.) 

Automatic  Sprayer. — The  automatic  sprayer  is  a  more 
convenient  form  than  the  bucket  sprayer.  This  sprayer  can 
be  filled  and  then  pumped  up  with  air,  and  the  entire  atten- 
tion of  the  operator  can  be  devoted  to  spraying.  The  auto- 
matic sprayer  is  very  convenient  and  easy  to  carry.  It  is 
particularly  good  for  truck  crops  and  small  bush  fruits. 

The  tank  of  this  sprayer  should  be  made  of  brass.  This 
is  highly  desirable,  because  if  it  is  made  of  galvanized  iron 
it  corrodes  very  rapidly  when  used  for  Bordeaux  mixture. 
The  corroding  action  on  the  metal  makes  the  life  of  the 


SPRAY  MACHINERY 


131 


sprayer  very  short.  Where  brass  is  used  and  the  tank  thor- 
oughly made,  these  sprayers  are  very  durable.  This  is  an 
ideal  sprayer  where  a  small  amount  of  spraying  is  to  be  done. 
Barrel  Sprayer. — The  barrel  pump  sprayer  is  of  medium 
capacity,  and  well  suited  for  the  small  orchard.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  being  comparatively  cheap  and  of  doing  very 
satisfactory  work. 


FIG.  59. — A  barrel  sprayer,  mounted  on  wheels.    (Barnes  Manufacturing 
Company.) 

There  are  two  ways  of  mounting  the  pump  in  the  barrel, 
namely  on  the  side  of  the  barrel  and  on  the  end  of  the  barrel. 
The  side  mounting  of  the  pump  seems  to  have  a  slight 
advantage  over  the  end  mounting  in  that  the  sprayer  sets 
low  down  and  is  not  in  the  way  of  low  branches.  There  is 
also  no  danger  of  tipping  the  barrel  over  when  mounted  on 
the  side. 


132     SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 

The  barrel  sprayer  usually  holds  about  fifty  gallons.  It 
requires  two  men  to  operate  it.  The  barrel  is  either  mounted 
on  a  sled  or  on  wheels. 

Twin-cylinder  Hand  Sprayer. — The  twin-cylinder  hand 
sprayer  is  decidedly  the  most  satisfactory  hand  pump.  By 
the  use  of  the  two  cylinders,  a  balance  of  power  is  obtained, 
which  ensures  an  even  flow  to  the  air  chamber,  which  is  not 
obtainable  with  a  single-cylinder  pump. 


FIG.  60. — Two-cylinder  hand  sprayer,  mounted  on  a  sled.     This  is  an  excel- 
lent type  for  a  small  sprayer.     (The  Goulds  Manufacturing  Company.) 

The  working  parts  of  this  pump  are  usually  made  of  brass. 
The  construction  is  strong,  compact  and  convenient. 

The  pump  is  operated  by  a  handle  which  is  removable,  and 
can  be  used  in  either  a  vertical  or  a  horizontal  position. 

The  double-cylinder  pump  is  a  very  efficient  sprayer.  It  is 
used  for  orchards  of  considerable  size,  and  a  much  greater 
pressure  can  usually  be  maintained  with  this  sprayer  than 
with  any  other  hand  pump.  It  is  remarkably  easy  to  operate. 
This  pump  is  usually  mounted  on  a  wagon  or  a  sled.  The 
vessel  holding  the  spray  material  may  be  either  a  tank,  or 
a  barrel,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  orchard  and  the 
inclination  of  the  owner, 


SPRAY  MACHINERY 


133 


Power  Sprayers. — The  power  sprayers  vary  in  size.  They 
range  from  a  two-cylinder  pump  up  to  three-cylinder  pumps 
of  considerable  capacity.  The  size  of  the  engine  varies  from 
1J  horse  power  to  4  horse  power.  The  power  sprayers  are 
more  complicated  and  require  more  skill  to  operate  than  do 
any  of  the  hand  pumps.  In  order  to  successfully  operate  a 
power  sprayer  one  must  know  something  about  gasoline 
engines  and  understand  the  principles  of  pumps. 


FIG.  61. — A  small   power  sprayer,  suitable  for  the  home  or  the  small  com- 
mercial orchard. 


The  power  sprayers  are  the  most  efficient  sprayers  on 
the  market  because  they  will,  permit  greater  pressure  and  a 
finer  distribution  of  the  spray  material.  The  pressure  usually 
carried  in  a  power  outfit  varies  from  150  to  250  pounds,  and 
the  tanks  range  in  size  from  125  to  200  gallons. 

The  power  sprayer  is  usually  equipped  with  a  tower  which 
permits  a  man  to  reach  all  parts  of  an  ordinary-sized  tree. 
These  sprayers  are  used  in  the  commercial  orchard  or  on  the 
large  farm  orchard.  It  requires  three  men  to  successfully 
operate  any  of  the  power  sprayers. 

Spray  Machine  Parts. — In  order  to  thoroughly  understand 
a  spray  machine,  one  must  understand  some  of  the  parts 


134     SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 

of  which  it  is  made.  Some  of  the  most  important  parts  are 
the  cylinders,  valves,  valve  seats,  plungers,  agitators,  supply 
tanks  and  nozzles. 

Cylinders. — The  cylinders  should  always  be  made  of  brass. 
Sometimes  brass  tubing  of  heavy  weight  is  threaded  to  fit 
the  cylinder  heads.  Some  firms  use  brass  tubing  clamped 
between  the  cylinder  heads,  while  still  others  use  a  solid 
cast-iron  chamber  with  a  brass  liner.  A  cast-iron  cylinder, 
enamelled  with  porcelain  has  been  used  some,  but  the  greatest 
difficulty  with  this  cylinder  is  the  unevenness  of  the  enamel, 
and  because  of  this  defect  it  is  not  generally  satisfactory. 

Vakes. — There  are  four  kinds  of  valves  found  in  the  spray 
machine,  namely,  the  ball,  poppit,  swing  check,  and  steam 
check.  These  valves  are  used  in  various  places  in  the 
machine  and  are  used  to  control  the  flow  of  the  liquid  and  to 
regulate  the  pressure  of  the  air.  Valves  are  made  of  rubber, 
steel  or  bronze  and  the  bronze  valve  is  the  most  durable  for 
all  kinds  of  work. 

There  are  many  variations  in  the  four  kinds  of  valves,  due 
to  minor  changes  in  the  construction  of  some  part,  but  these 
are  too  numerous  to  discuss  in  detail. 

Valve  Seat. — The  valve  seat  is  the  place  into  which  the 
valve  fits.  The  seats  are  built  to  receive  the  particular  type 
of  valve  which  is  used.  Many  of  the  valve  seats  are  made  of 
iron,  with  a  secondary  seat  of  leather  or  rubber  to  prevent 
back  flow.  Occasionally  hard-rubber  seats  are  used,  but  the 
majority  of  pumps  are  equipped  with  removable  brass  valve 
seats,  which  are  the  most  durable  and  the  most  desirable. 

Plunger. — The  plunger  or  piston  is  that  part  which  fits 
into  the  cylinder  and  gives  compression.  Plungers  are  fitted 
with  various  types  of  packing.  Some  of  the  most  common 
materials  used  for  this  purpose  are  cloth  reinforced  with 
rubber,  hemp,  steam  packing,  and  paraffin  canvas.  The  most 
desirable  packing  is  one  that  will  last  for  a  considerable  period 
and  does  not  require  constant  attention  to  keep  it  in  shape. 

Agitators. — An  agitator  is  a  device  for  stirring  the  material 
in  the  tank  during  spraying.  In  a  small  tank  or  a  barrel  the 
swinging  paddles  are  fairly  satisfactory,  but  in  the  power 
sprayers  the  sliding  agitator  or  propeller  is  preferable.  The 


SPRAY  MACHINERY 


135 


sliding  agitator  simply  moves  back  and  forth  along  the  bottom 
of  the  tank,  while  the  propeller  whirls  around  in  the  liquid, 
keeping  it  churned  up  all  the  time.  The  propeller  agitators 
are  much  more  efficient  than  any  other  type  because  of  their 
higher  speed,  durability,  simplicity,  and  small  size. 

Supply  Tanks. — Supply  tanks  vary  in  shape  and  in  size. 
The  most  popular  tank,  however,  is  the  round-bottom  type. 
This  tank  is  easily  kept  tight  by  screwing  up  a  few  nuts  on 
the  clamp  rods.  The  principal  trouble  with  all  tanks  is  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  them  water-tight,  and  when  selecting  one 
see  that  there  is  an  easy  way  of  tightening  it  up  so  that  it  can 
always  be  kept  tight.  A  wooden  tank  is  preferable  to  any 
metal  tank. 


FIG.   62. — Different  types  of  spray  nozzles.     1,  three-cluster  Vermorel; 
2,  angle  Cyclone;  3,  Bordeaux;  4.  Whirlpool;  5,  Vapo. 

Nozzles. — The  nozzles  used  for  spraying  vary  greatly,  and 
several  distinct  kinds  are  in  use.  The  nozzle  is  often  the 
source  of  considerable  trouble,  and  great  care  should  be  used 
in  selecting  a  good  type. 

Some  of  the  common  types  of  nozzles  are  the  Bordeaux, 
Cyclone,  Whirlpool,  Vermorel,  of  which  there  is  a  one-,  two-, 
three-,  and  a  four-cluster  Vermorel,  the  Vapo  and  several 
others.  The  different  kinds  are  used  for  special  purposes  and 
no  one  general-purpose  nozzle  is  very  satisfactory.  The  Vapo 
nozzle  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  types  and  it  has 
largely  taken  the  place  of  the  Vermorel.  A  small,  single  Vapo 
nozzle  has  the  capacity  of  a  three-cluster  Vermorel. 


136     SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 


The  chief  function  of  a  nozzle  is  to  throw  a  very  fine  spray 
and  to  distribute  it  uniformly  in  all  directions.  A  nozzle 
clogs  up  easily  and  needs  cleaning  frequently  for  good  work. 
Spray  Rod. — The  spray  rod  is  used 
to  facilitate  spraying  and  to  aid  in  dis- 
tributing the  spray  mixture  where  it  is 
wanted.  It  affords  an  easy  means  of 
extending  the  spray.  The  spray  rod  is 
often  spoken  of  as  an  extension  rod.  It 
is  made  of  bamboo  and  varies  in  length 
from  6  to  12  feet.  Each  rod  is  lined 
either  with  aluminum,  brass  or  iron,  but 
a  seamless,  aluminum  tubing,  which  is 
screw  threaded  into  brass  connections  at 
either  end  is  preferable.  These  connec- 
tions sleeve  over  the  end  of  the  rod, 
which  make  the  joints  very  strong.  The 
use  of  aluminum  tubing  makes  the  rod 
very  light  and  easy  to  handle.  The 
bamboo  extension  rods  are  also  fitted 
with  rubber  drip  guards  which  can  be 
moved  up  and  down  on  the  rod,  and  are 
used  to  catch  all  of  the  moisture  that 
settles  on  the  rod  while  spraying. 

Spray  Gun. — The  spray  gun,  which 
is  the  most  recent  development  in  this 
line  of  equipment,  promises  to  replace 
entirely  the  spray  rod.    This  gun  not 
only  saves  labor  and  money,  but  is  effi- 
cient and  easy  to  handle.     It   can  be 
quickly  adjusted  to  throw  either  a  fine  or  a  coarse  spray  a 
short  or  a  long  distance. 

SPRAY  MATERIALS. 

The  necessity  of  spraying  is  no  longer  doubted.  It  has 
been  demonstrated  and  proved  beyond  further  doubt  that 
unless  spraying  is  done  it  is  almost  an  impossibility  to  produce 
first-class  horticultural  products.  The  only  question  that 
remains  is  to  determine  what  is  the  proper  material  with 
which  to  spray  the  plants. 


FIG.  63. — Spray  gun, 
the  latest  and  best  tool 
for  the  spraying  of 
plants.  This  is  fast 
replacing  the  common 
spray  rod. 


SPRAY  MATERIALS  137 

Spray  materials  are  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  insect- 
icides, which  are  chemicals  used  for  the  killing  of  insects,  and 
fungicides,  which  are  chemicals  used  to  prevent  or  destroy 
plant  diseases.  The  insecticides  are  divided  into  stomach 
poisons  and  contact  poisons,  based  upon  the  way  in  which 
they  kill  the  insect. 

Insecticides  and  fungicides  are  used  in  two  ways,  either  in 
a  dry  state  as  a  fine  powder  or  dissolved  in  water  and  dis- 
tributed as  a  fine  spray.  If  the  material  is  dusted  on  the 
plants,  it  is  distributed  by  the  use  of  a  dust  gun  which  forces 
the  powder  out  by  the  aid  of  a  fan.  If  a  spray  is  used,  various 
kinds  of  spraying  machines  are  employed. 

Sprays  for  the  Plants  and  How  to  Prepare  Them. — Poisons 
for  Biting  Insects. — There  are  a  number  of  insecticides  which 
are  used  for  biting  insects.  These  poisons  are  taken  into 
the  stomach  of  the  insects  and  kill  them  through  their  action 
on  the  digestive  tract.  There  are  two  classes  of  stomach 
poisons,  namely,  organic  poisons,  which  are  usually  vegetable 
compounds,  and  inorganic  compounds,  which  are  of  inorganic 
materials.  The  vegetable  poisons  are  poisonous  to  the 
insects  but  not  to  the  human  system  and  therefore  are  safer 
to  use  on  some  plants,  as,  for  instance,  cabbage,  lettuce, 
or  currants.  The  poisonous  property  of  these  insecticides 
is  usually  volatile,  that  is,  when  the  material  is  exposed  to 
the  air  for  a  few  days  it  loses  its  poisonous  nature.  Because 
of  this  fact  it  must  be  strictly  fresh  when  it  is  used,  and  it 
must  be  kept  air-tight,  when  it  is  stored,  otherwise  it  is 
worthless.  The  two  most  important  insecticides  which 
belong  to  this  class  are  the  white  hellebore  and  the  pyrethrum. 
The  inorganic  insecticides  are  poisonous  to  insects  as 
well  as  to  animals,  and  greater  care  must  be  used  in  their 
application  to  the  plants.  There  are  many  poisons  in  this 
class,  but  the  base  of  all  of  them  is  usually  some  form  of 
arsenic.  A  few  of  the  most  common  ones  are  arsenate  of 
lead,  Paris  green,  and  London  purple. 

These  poisons  are  applied  in  both  the  dust  form  and  the 
spray  form.  The  method  which  is  selected  depends  upon 
the  plant  and  the  insect  which  is  being  treated. 


138     SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 

FORMULAS   FOR  THE   STOMACH  POISONS. 
ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 

Paste  Form. 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  to  5  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

Powder  Form. 

Arsenate  of  lead        .      . 1|  to  3  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

This  poison  is  in  many  respects  the  most  satisfactory  of 
any  of  the  arsenical  sprays.  It  is  very  adhesive  and  if 
properly  made  will  not  burn  the  foliage  to  any  extent.  More 
pounds  of  the  paste  form  must  be  used  to  a  given  quantity 
of  water  than  the  powder  form  because  of  the  amount  of 
moisture  present  in  the  paste. 

PARIS   GREEN. 

Paris  green \  to  1  pound 

Stone  lime 2  to  3  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

The  chief  fault  with  the  Paris  green  is  its  tendency  to  burn 
the  foliage.  If  it  is  not  added  to  some  fungicide,  stone  lime 
should  be  added  to  the  water  in  order  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
burning  of  the  foliage.  If  Paris  green  is  used  in  combination 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  the  addition  of  lime  is  not  necessary. 
This  insecticide  is  a  very  active  poison. 

WHITE   HELLEBORE. 

When  Used  as  a  Spray. 

White  hellebore 1  ounce 

Water 3  gallons 

When  Used  as  a  Powder. 

White  hellebore 1  ounce 

Air-slaked  lime,  flour  or  sifted  road  dust     ....        5  ounces 

PYRETHRUM. 

When  Used  as  a  Spray. 

Pyrethrum 1  ounce 

Water 2  gallons 

When  Used  as  a  Powder. 

Pyrethrum 1  ounce 

Air-slaked  lime,  flour  or  sifted  road  dust     ....        5  ounces 


SPRAY  MATERIALS  139 

The  white  hellebore  and  the  pyrethrum  lose  their  poisonous 
properties  quickly  when  exposed  to  the  air.  These  insecti- 
cides are  poisonous  to  insects  but  not  to  higher  animals. 
They  are  valuable  to  use  on  ripening  fruit  or  just  before  the 
harvesting  of  such  crops  as  the  lettuce  or  the  cabbage.  These 
poisons  must  be  strictly  fresh  or  they  are  worthless. 

Poisons  for  Sucking  Insects. — Sucking  insects  cannot  be 
controlled  by  the  same  poisons  as  biting  insects,  because 
these  insects  do  not  eat  the  plant  tissue.  The  mouth  parts 
of  the  sucking  insects  are  so  constructed  that  the  insect  can 
insert  them  into  the  plant  tissue  and  suck  out  the  plant  juices, 
and  therefore  any  stomach  poison  applied  to  the  plant  will 
in  no  wray  affect  the  sucking  insects.  In  order  then  to  con- 
trol this  class  of  insect  pests,  we  must  spray  the  plant  and 
cover  the  insects  with  some  material  that  will  destroy  them 
by  coming  in  contact  with  their  bodies.  A  few  common 
contact  insecticides  are  lime  sulphur,  nicotine  sprays,  various 
mixtures  of  soap  and  kerosene  and  oil  sprays. 

FORMULAS   FOR   CONTACT   POISONS. 

LIME-SULPHUR  WASH. 

Stone  lime 12  to  15  pounds 

Flowers  of  sulphur 15  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

This  formula  is  for  the  home-made  wash.  Slake  the  lime 
in  a  small  quantity  of  water.  Gradually  stir  the  sulphur 
into  this  mixture.  Dilute  the  mixture  to  12  gallons  and  boil 
for  one  hour  or  longer.  Remove  from  the  fire  and  add  enough 
water  to  make  50  gallons.  Strain  the  wash  through  a  fine- 
mesh  strainer.  This  spray  must  be  used  when  the  plants  are 
dormant,  and  it  is  either  applied  in  the  spring  before  the  buds 
open  or  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves  drop.  The  chief  disad- 
vantage of  this  home-made  wash  is  the  great  quantity  of 
sediment  which  is  hard  to  remove  satisfactorily  so  that  it 
will  not  clog  up  the  pump  and  nozzles. 

COMMERCIAL  LIME-SULPHUR  SOLUTION. 

The  commercial  lime-sulphur  is  much  easier  to  use  because 
it  is  free  from  sediment  and  requires  no  preparation  other 


140     SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 

than  to  dilute  it  with  water.  The  commercial  solutions  are 
thoroughly  reliable.  They  are  fairly  well  standardized  now 
and  the  standard  liquid  test  is  about  33  degrees  on  the 
Baume  hydrometer,  which  is  the  density  of  the  solution. 
These  solutions  when  used  as  insecticides  must  be  diluted 
and  sprayed  on  the  plants  when  they  are  in  a  dormant  state. 
When  the  solution  tests  33  degrees  Baume,  one  gallon  of 
the  mixture  should  be  diluted  with  7  or  8  gallons  of  water. 
Solutions  less  dense  should  be  diluted  as  follows : 

TABLE   OF    DILUTIONS   FOR  THE  DORMANT  SPRAY. 


Number  of  gallons  of 

Reading  of 

water    to    1    gallon 
of  the  lime-sulphur 

hydrometer, 
degree  Baume. 

solution  for  dormant 
spray. 

33      .      . 

.     7 

32 

65 

31 

6 

30      
29      

5* 

si 

28      

5 

27      

4f 

26      

........  a 

25      

4i 

24      

4 

23      

4 

22 

3f 

21 

31 

20 

3 

SOAP  SOLUTIONS. 

Satisfactory  insecticides  for  soft-bodied  insects  can  be 
made  from  soap.  Fish-oil  soap  is  probably  the  best,  although 
common  laundry  soap  is  very  good.  The  solution  is  made  by 
cutting  up  one  pound  of  soap  into  small  pieces  and  dissolving 
it  by  boiling  in  4  or  5  gallons  of  water.  This  is  a  good  spray 
for  plant  lice. 

NICOTINE   PRODUCTS. 

The  nicotine  products  are  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory 
contact  insecticides  we  have  for  the  plant  lice.  The  active 
principle  in  these  solutions  is  nicotine  sulphate.  Some  com- 
mercial products,  namely,  the  Black  Leaf  40  and  the  Nico- 


SPRAY  MATERIALS  141 

fume,  are  very  good.  These  materials  are  made  from  tobacco 
and  are  in  a  very  concentrated  form.  They  are  usually  pre- 
pared by  diluting  the  stock  solution  with  800  to  1000  parts 
of  water. 

Tobacco  decoction  is  also  used  to  some  extent  as  an 
insecticide.  This  spray  is  made  by  boiling  1  pound  of  tobacco 
stems  in  about  a  gallon  of  water  for  one  hour.  Strain  out  the 
refuse  material  and  add  enough  water  to  make  two  gallons. 
The  tobacco  products  are  excellent  for  controlling  the  plant 
lice,  and  they  do  no  injury  to  the  most  tender  plants. 

KEROSENE  EMULSION. 

Laundry  soap 5  pound 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

Water     . 1  gallon 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  made  by  dissolving  the  soap  by 
boiling  it  in  the  full  amount  of  water.  Remove  the  mixture 
from  the  fire  and  add  the  kerosene.  Stir  the  mixture  violently 
for  about  fifteen  minutes  until  it  becomes  a  creamy  mass  that 
will  not  separate.  This  is  the  stock  solution.  For  use  dilute 
1  part  of  the  emulsion  with  8  to  10  parts  of  water  for  hard- 
bodied  insects,  and  1  part  with  12  to  20  parts  of  water  for 
soft-bodied  insects. 

CARBOLIC  ACID  EMULSION. 

Hard  soap 1  pound 

Crude  carbolic  acid 1  pint 

Hot  water 1  gallon 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  hot  water  and  add  the  carbolic 
acid.  Churn  the  mixture  until  it  becomes  creamy  and  does 
not  separate.  This  is  the  stock  solution.  For  use  dilute 
1  part  of  the  emulsion  to  30  parts  of  water.  This  spray  is 
used  against  the  different  kinds  of  maggots,  the  cabbage 
worms,  and  other  soft-bodied  insects. 

Sprays  for  Plant  Diseases. — The  spray  mixtures  for  the 
control  of  plant  diseases  differ  from  those  used  to  kill  insects. 
The  confusion  which  results  over  this  question  is  oftentimes 
detrimental  to  the  growers. 


142     SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 


BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. 

Copper  sulphate 4  pounds 

Stone  lime 4  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

This  mixture  is  known  as  the  standard  Bordeaux.  Other 
strengths  are  made  by  using  a  less  amount  of  the  copper 
sulphate  and  the  stone  lime.  To  make  Bordeaux  mixture 
dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  several  gallons  of  water 
and  then  add  enough  water  to  make  25  gallons.  Slake  the 
stone  lime  in  about  five  gallons  of  water,  and  add  enough 
water  to  it  to  make  the  25  gallons.  When  these  solutions 
are  made  pour  both  of  them  together  into  a  barrel,  and  the 
spray  material  is  finished. 

Bordeaux  mixture  should  not  be  made  in  metal  vessels 
because  the  copper  acts  upon  the  metal  and  soon  destroys  it. 
Wooden  vessels  are  best  suited  for  making  this  material. 
Bordeaux  mixture  should  always  be  made  fresh  and  sprayed 
on  the  plant  as  soon  as  it  is  made.  It  loses  much  of  its  value 
as  a  fungicide  if  it  is  allowed  to  stand  very  long  before  it  is 
used. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  one  of  the  best  fungicides  we  have 
and  its  place  in  horticulture  is  firmly  established. 

SELF-BOILED   LIME-SULPHUR  MIXTURE. 

Stone  lime 10  pounds 

Flowers  of  sulphur 10  pounds 

Water •.      .      ,      .      .      50  gallons 

Place  the  lime  in  a  barrel  and  pour  on  enough  water  to 
start  the  slaking  of  the  lime.  Then  add  the  sulphur  after 
sieving  it  to  remove  any  lumps  and  stir  the  mixture  thor- 
oughly, finally,  adding  sufficient  water  to  make  a  paste. 
Constant  stirring  is  necessary  to  prevent  caking.  After  the 
boiling  produced  by  the  slaking  of  the  lime  is  over,  the  mix- 
ture should  be  diluted  to  the  50  gallons  and  it  is  then  ready 
to  use. 

This  fungicide  is  very  satisfactory  for  use  on  the  peach,  the 
American  and  Japanese  plums,  and  upon  some  varieties  of 
cherries. 


SPRAY  MATERIALS  143 


COMMERCIAL  LIME-SULPHUR   SOLUTION. 

The  commercial  lime-sulphur  solution  is  a  good  fungicide 
when  diluted  to  the  proper  strength.  In  fact  it  is  universally 
used  on  many  of  our  fruits  and  particularly  the  apple.  This 
fungicide,  however,  is  not  very  satisfactory  in  controlling 
the  rots,  but  it  is  good  for  the  apple  scab,  the  fly  speck  fungus 
and  some  other  diseases. 

The  dilution  of  this  fungicide  is  based  upon  the  density 
of  the  solution,  the  same  as  it  is  for  the  insecticide,  except 
that  the  spray  must  be  much  weaker  as  a  fungicide  than  as 
an  insecticide.  The  table  gives  the  dilution  based  upon  the 
degrees  Baume  of  the  commercial  product. 

TABLE   OF  DILUTIONS   FOR  SUMMER  SPRAY. 

Number  of  gallons  of 
water    to    1    gallon 

Reading  of  of   the   lime-sulphur 

hydrometer,  solution  for  summer, 

degrees  Baume.  spray  of  apples. 

33 40 

32 37 

31 36 

30 34 

29 33 

28 31 

27 29 

26 28 

25 26 

•24      .      .  - 24 

23 23 

22      .      .      . 21 

21 20 

20 19 

Combination  Insecticides  and  Fungicides. — There  are  insects 
and  diseases  which  attack  certain  crops  about  the  same  time. 
Whenever  such  a  condition  is  found,  a  combination  of  both 
an  insecticide  and  a  fungicide  can  be  sprayed  on  the  plants 
as  one  spray.  By  this  practice  the  work  of  spraying  is 
greatly  decreased. 

The  combinations  vary,  depending  upon  the  plant  and  the 
injury  which  is  being  done.  A  few  of  the  combinations  which 
can  be  made  are  as  follows : 


144    SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 

COMBINATION   OF  SUMMER  SPRAYS. 

No.  1. 

Commercial  lime-sulphur  diluted     1  gallon  to  40  gallons  of  water 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  or  3  pounds  to  50  gallons 

Nicotine  sulphate       ....      1  part  to  800  parts  of  the  spray 

This  combination  can  be  made  and  applied  at  the  same 
time,  if  the  conditions  warrant  it.  The  lime-sulphur  is  used 
to  control  such  diseases  as  the  scab  of  the  apple,  the  arsenate 
of  lead  controls  the  codling  moth  or  other  eating  insects, 
and  the  nicotine  controls  the  plant  lice  if  there  are  any 
present.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  the  lime  sulphur 
and  arsenate  of  lead  combination  in  almost  all  of  the  spraying, 
but  the  nicotine  sulphate  should  not  be  used  unless  there  are 
insects  present  that  require  its  use. 

No.  2. 

Bordeaux  mixture      .      .      .      .      4-4-50  formula 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  pounds  to  50  gallons 

Nicotine  sulphate       ....      1  part  to  800  parts  of  the  spray 

This  combination  is  similar  to  the  first  one,  except  that  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  substituted  for  the  lime-sulphur  solu- 
tion. The  Bordeaux  mixture  is  preferable  to  the  lime-sulphur 
solution  for  certain  diseases.  The  nicotine  should  not  be 
added  unless  there  are  insects  present  that  require  it. 

No.  3. 

Self-boiled  lime-sulphur  mix- 
ture   10-10-50  formula 

Arsenate  of  lead    ....      3  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  the  spray 

This  combination  is  very  satisfactory  for  spraying  some  of 
the  American  and  Japanese  varieties  of  plums. 

Fumigation. — In  addition  to  the  common  spray  mixture 
we  recognize  fumigation  as  a  means  of  controlling  diseases 
and  insects.  Whenever  fumigation  is  employed  for  the  con- 
trol of  disease  it  is  used  in  a  special  way.  Formaldehyde 
gas  is  the  common  fumigant  used.  The  Maine  formula  for 
formalin  is: 

Formalin 3  pounds 

Potassium  permanganate        ........      23  ounces 


SPRAY  MATERIALS  145 

This  quantity  is  sufficient  for  the  fumigation  of  1000  cubic 
feet  of  space.  The  fumigation  is  used  to  destroy  diseases  on 
certain  crops  when  they  are  placed  in  storage.  The  potato 
and  onion  are  two  crops  often  treated  in  this  way.  When 
fumigation  is  practised  the  crops  are  placed  in  crates  and 
piled  up  in  rows  in  a  tight  room.  The  gas  is  generated  by 
pouring  the  formalin  in  a  flat-bottomed  dish  and  adding  the 
potassium  permanganate  the  last  thing  before  leaving  the 
room.  The  room  should  be  closed  tightly  and  allowed 'to 
remain  closed  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours. 

Seed  Treatment. — The  diseases  of  some  of  our  crops  are 
found  on  the  seed.  In  such  crops,  the  treating  of  the  seed 
before  planting  it  is  very  beneficial  and  greatly  increases 
the  yield.  The  two  common  materials  used  for  seed  treat- 
ment are  formalin  and  corrosive  sublimate. 

The  formalin  is  more  generally  used  and  is  more  adapted  to 
a  larger  number  of  seed.  The  black  leg  of  the  cabbage  and 
the  smut  of  the  onion  are  two  common  diseases  which  can  be 
partially  controlled  by  treating  the  seed  with  this  solution. 

The  scab  of  the  potato  is  greatly  reduced  by  soaking  the 
potato  seed  in  a  formalin  solution  made  by  placing  1  pint 
of  formalin  in  30  gallons  of  water.  The  potato  should  remain 
in  this  solution  for  about  two  hours. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  also  used  for  the  treatment  of  potato 
seed.  The  corrosive  sublimate  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of 
2  ounces  to  16  gallons  of  water  and  the  potatoes  allowed  to 
soak  one  and  one-half  hours. 

The  most  recent  work  on  seed  treatment  is  a  modification 
of  the  cold  method  treatment.  Recently  the  Iowa  station  has 
modified  this  method  by  dipping  the  potatoes  for  two  min- 
utes in  a  hot  formaldehyde  solution  and  allowing  them  to 
dry.  They  report  the  efficiency  of  this  method  has  been 
demonstrated  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  field.  This  is  a 
decided  improvement  over  the  old  method,  because  a  hot 
solution  is  more  active  than  a  cold  one  and  it  has  the  advan- 
tage of  greater  penetration  and  the  ability  to  kill  more 
rapidly.  It  is  more  practical  when  a  large  quantity  of  seed 
is  treated,  as  it  consumes  very  little  time  as  compared  with 
the  cold  method. 
10 


146      SPRAY  MACHINERY  AND  SPRAY  MATERIALS 

The  strength  recommended  is  2  pints  of  40  per  cent, 
fomaldehyde  to  30  gallons  of  water,  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  118°  to  122°  F.  and  dipped  for  two  minutes.  Remove  the 
potatoes,  pile  6  to  8  inches  deep  and  cover  them  with  wet 
sacks  for  an  hour,  then  let  them  dry. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  six  different  kinds  of  spray  machines. 

2.  Why  are  the  small   hand  sprayers  not   as  effective   as  the  power 
machines? 

3.  How  does  the  bucket  sprayer  differ  from  the  automatic  sprayer? 

4.  What  advantage  has  the  automatic  sprayer  over  the  bucket  sprayer? 

5.  How  does  the   barrel   sprayer  differ  from  the   twin-cylinder  hand 
sprayer? 

6.  What  three  kinds  of  power  sprayers  are  made  and  upon  what  is  the 
difference  based? 

7.  Name  the  four  kinds  of  valves  found  in  a  spray  machine? 

8.  What  material  is  best  suited  for  making  the  valve  seat? 

9.  Describe  the  most  effective  agitator. 

10.  What  material  is  best  suited  for  making  a  spray  tank?     Why? 

11.  Name  and  describe  several  kinds  of  spray  nozzles? 

12.  Why  are  the  nozzles  so  very  important  in  spraying? 

13.  What  is  the  spray  rod,  and  what  is  its  function? 

14.  Name  two  poisons  for  biting  insects. 

15.  What  is  meant  by  a  contact  and  a  stomach  insecticide? 

16.  Why  should  stone  lime  be  added  to  Paris  green  when  spraying? 

17.  When  should  white  hellebore  and  pyrethrum  be  used  in  spraying? 

18.  Give  the  formula  and  tell  how  lime-sulphur  wash  is  made? 

19.  On  what  kind  of  insects  is  kerosene  emulsion  used? 

20.  How  does  kerosene  emulsion  differ  from  carbolic  acid  emulsion? 

21.  Give  the  formula  for  Bordeaux  mixture  and  tell  how  it  is  made. 

22.  What  is  the  difference  between  commercial  lime  sulphur  and  self- 
boiled  lime  sulphur? 

23.  What  combinations  of  insecticides  and  fungicides  are  possible,  and 
why  are  they  made? 

24.  What  is  meant  by  fumigation  and  what  is  controlled  by  it? 

25.  Tell  how  seed  potatoes  are  treated  and  what  is  gained  by  this  treat- 
ment. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE  PRUNING  OF  PLANTS. 

THE  pruning  of  plants  is  an  important  as  well  as  an 
interesting  operation.  It  may  be  defined  as  the  process  of 
cutting  off  excess  or  undesirable  wood.  Small  and  large 
branches,  roots,  or  twigs  are  removed  so  that  the  remaining 
parts  are  benefited.  Pruning  requires  knowledge,  experience 
and  judgment,  and  when  properly  performed,  produces  a 
tree  that  is  symmetrical  in  shape.  Plants  properly  pruned 
will  bear  excellent  fruit,  because  the  plant  food  is  used  in 
fewer  branches  and  therefore  the  plant  can  grow  better  fruit. 

Plants  of  different  kinds  must  be  pruned  differently. 
Likewise  young  plants  must  be  pruned  in  a  different  manner 
than  old  and  mature  plants.  Young  trees  one  year  old  are 
pruned  differently  than  five-year-old  or  twenty-year-old 
trees.  Vines  are  pruned  unlike  the  bush  fruits,  and  the 
brambles,  such  as  blackberries  and  the  raspberries,  are  pruned 
differently  than  the  peach  or  the  pear  tree.  So  then  after 
analyzing  pruning  in  a  brief  way  we  are  led  to  assume  that 
all  plants  must  be  pruned  in  a  manner  determined  by  the 
plant,  and  also  that  the  methods  must  be  varied  as  the  plant 
grows  older.  The  pruning  of  a  plant  might  be  roughly  divided 
into  three  groups:  (1)  pruning  to  save  the  life  of  a  plant,  (2) 
pruning  for  profit,  and  (3)  pruning  for  ornament. 

Principles  of  Pruning. — There  are  certain  principles  in 
the  pruning  of  any  plant  that  are  identical,  because  prun- 
ing is  simply  an  operation  on  the  plant.  It  consists  of 
removing  a  certain  amount  or  a  part  of  the  plant  body.  The 
nature  of  animal  life  is  to  heal  any  cut  or  wound  on  its  body, 
and  it  is  also  the  nature  of  a  plant  to  heal  any  wound  made 
on  it.  However,  a  wound  made  by  removing  a  limb  on  a 
plant  is  different  from  the  cutting  off  of  a  piece  of  the  bark 
on  the  trunk,  which  might  be  similar  to  an  animal  wound. 
Consequently  a  few  principles  in  removing  a  branch  must  be 


148  PRUNING  OF  PLANTS 

observed.  All  wounds  on  a  plant  are  healed  by  the  cell  sap 
carrying  food  to  the  wounded  part.  If  this  wounded  part  is 
in  the  line  of  the  sap  movement  the  wound  is  readily  healed, 
but  if  the  wound  is  not  in  line  with  this  channel  in  which  the 
sap  flows  it  will  not  be  healed.  Since  the  only  way  that  the 
sap  is  kept  flowing  in  this  channel  is  by  the  presence  of  leaves 
on  the  trees,  it  is  at  once  apparent  that  if  a  limb  is  cut  off, 
the  leaves  are  removed  and  consequently  the  sap  does  not 
pass  out  into  any  part  of  the  stub  that  remains.  When  a 
stub  is  allowed  to  remain  no  healing  can  take  place  and  in 
a  short  time  disease  will  enter  the  tree  and  finally  cause  its 
death. 

The  pruning  of  a  plant  disturbs  the  balance  between  the 
top  and  the  roots.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  top  and 
the  roots  of  a  plant  maintain  an  equilibrium  and  when  a 
part  of  the  branches  is  cut  off  it  breaks  this  balance.  The 
natural  tendency  then,  is  to  have  the  plant  develop  enough 
new  branches  to  bring  about  this  balance  between  the  roots 
and  top.  When  pruning,  then,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into 
consideration  this  principle,  and  not  prune  too  severely,  so 
that  the  balance  of  the  tree  is  not  so  radically  disturbed. 
Constant  and  uniform  pruning  every  year  avoids  any  bad 
effects  from  this  source,  but  spasmodic  and  severe  pruning 
greatly  interrupts  the  equilibrium  of  a  plant. 

Time  to  Prune. — The  time  for  pruning  varies  over  a  con- 
siderable period  and  with  different  plants,  and  we  recog- 
nize winter  and  summer  pruning.  With  most  horticulturists 
pruning  is  done  during  the  late  winter  and  early  spring 
months.  As  a  rule,  pruning  late  in  the  spring,  just  before 
growth  begins,  is  the  ideal  time  for  most  plants.  Late 
pruning  of  this  kind  serves  to  remove  all  winter-killed 
branches  with  no  chance  of  more  to  occur.  It  also  has  the 
advantage  of  starting  the  healing  process  at  once  and  the 
wound  is  exposed  for  a  much  shorter  time. 

Summer  pruning  may  be  practiced  to  regulate  the  form  of 
a  tree  or  induce  growth  in  accordance  with  some  specific 
purpose.  It  also  has  a  tendency  to  produce  fruit  buds  by 
checking  exuberant  growth  and  by  encouraging  short  lateral 
growths  or  short  spur-like  branches  in  the  center  of  the  tree. 


PRUNING  TOOLS 


149 


Protection  of  Wounds. — All  wounded  surfaces  should  be 
covered  with  some  protective  material  in  order  to  prevent 
diseases  from  gaining  an  entrance.  No  artificial  material 
will  aid  in  healing  of  any  wound,  but  it  prevents  water  and 
other  foreign  material  from  entering. 

Small  wounds  not  to  exceed  one-half  to  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  will  usually  heal  over  in  one  year  and  no  covering  is 
necessary.  Larger  wounds,  however,  should  be  protected. 
White  lead  paint,  which  is  of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream, 
is  perhaps  the  best  material  to  use  for  wound  dressing. 
It  is  easily  secured,  it  adheres  well,  it  does  not  crack  or 
chip  off,  it  is  easily  applied  and  does  not  interfere  with  the 
healing  process.  Occasionally  tar  products  and  grafting 
waxes  are  also  used. 


.DISSTON  iSONS 


FIG.  64.— Four  good  types  of  pruning  saws. 

Pruning   Tools. — Special   pruning  tools   are   necessary  if 
good  priming  is  to  be  done.     In  selecting  any  tool,  see 


150 


PRUNING  OF  PLANTS 


that  it  is  made  of  the  best  material  and  capable  of  keeping 
a  good  cutting  edge.  Every  cut  must  be  made  clean  and 
smooth,  which  can  only  be  done  by  the  best  pruning  tools. 
The  pruning  saw,  the  pruning  knife,  and  the  pruning 
shears  are  all  necessary  for  the  different  kinds  of  pruning. 
In  selecting  a  pruning  saw,  get  one  that  has  the  saw  teeth 
only  on  one  edge.  The  two-edge  pruning  saw  is  of  no  value 
and  should  be  banished  from  the  country.  A  small,  narrow 
saw  resembling  a  compass  saw,  although  somewhat  longer  and 
slightly  thicker,  is  perhaps  the  best  type.  These  saws  can  be 


FIG.  65. — Several  types  of  pruning  tools. 

purchased  at  reliable  up-to-date  stores.  Several  types  of 
good  pruning  shears  are  found  on  the  market,  and  the  ones 
shown  in  the  illustration  are  excellent  types  to  use.  The 
pruning  knife,  however,  is  indispensable  for  cutting  smaller 
limbs.  This  is  perhaps  the  best,  too,  since  a  cleaner  cut  can 
be  made  with  it  than  any  other  pruning  tool. 

Cause  for  Pruning. — Under  natural  conditions  many  plants 
grow  very  thickly  and  produce  so  many  branches  that  they 
very  often  crowd  each  other.  The  older  the  plant  gets  the 
more  the  limbs  crowd,  until  the  plant  reaches  a  point  that 
the  branches  become  so  numerous  that  much  light  and  air 


REMOVING  LARGE  BRANCHES         151 

are  shut  out.  In  addition  to  this  trouble  the  plant  has  so 
many  surplus  branches  that  the  root  system  is  not  sufficient 
to  continue  the  growth  of  so  much  wood,  and  at  the  same 
time  produce  fruit.  When  pruning  is  practised,  these  surplus 
branches  are  removed  which  allow  the  food  material  to  go 
into  the  production  of  fruit  and  flowers  instead  of  wood. 

The  pruning  of  a  tree  or  bush  also  aids  in  forming  a  uniform 
and  symmetrical  plant.  All  of  the  irregular  branches  are 
removed  and  the  others  shortened,  so  that  the  plant  will  be 
uniform. 

The  thinning  out  of  the  branches  aids  in  controlling  insects 
and  diseases.  Spraying  is  made  much  easier  and  larger  crops 
are  produced. 

The  systematic  pruning  of  plants,  especially  when  grown 
under  artificial  conditions,  aids  in  withstanding  wind  storms, 
and  trees  are  not  blown  over  as  easily  as  when  large,  long 
branches  are  allowed  to  remain. 

Effects  of  Pruning. — The  regular  methods  employed  in  the 
pruning  of  a  tree  or  shrub  has  a  tendency  to  increase  growth. 
Weak  plants  can  oftentimes  be  made  to  grow  more  rapidly 
by  severely  pruning  the  top  during  the  resting  period.  When 
such  plants  are  severely  pruned  all  the  strength  of  the  roots 
is  used  to  grow  a  single  upright,  vigorous  stalk.  This  acceler- 
ation of  growth  is  also  seen  in  the  rejuvenation  of  an  old  tree. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  peach.  By  cutting  off  prac- 
tically all  of  the  old  top  of  the  tree,  you  cause  the  roots  to 
send  out  many  vigorous  shoots  which  in  a  short  time  makes 
another  head  of  all  new  wood.  Occasionally  other  old  trees 
are  treated  in  this  manner,  as  the  apple,  elm  and  sometimes 
the  soft  maple. 

Pruning  of  certain  plants  also  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  the 
production  of  fruit.  The  peach  serves  as  a  good  example, 
as  in  this  case  the  plant  bears  its  fruit  upon  the  growth  of  the 
previous  year  and  the  grower  can  reduce  the  crop  in  propor- 
tion to  the  capacity  of  the  tree.  Pruning  aids  in  combating 
certain  diseases,  as,  for  example,  the  cankers  and  the  blights. 
The  only  control  for  these  diseases  is  the  removal  of  the  dis- 
eased part  by  pruning. 

How  to  Remove  Large  Branches. — It  often  happens  that  in 
order  to  obtain  the  best  results  in  removing  large  limbs  two 


152 


PRUNING  OF  PLANTS 


cuts  must  be  made.  The  branch  should  be  sawed  off  about 
a  foot  above  the  point  of  its  origin  in  order  to  prevent  the 
splitting  down  and  the  tearing  off  of  a  large  portion  of  bark. 
To  do  this,  first  cut  away  a  large  portion  of  the  branch,  which 
will  aid  in  lessening  the  weight  of  the  limb.  Next  make  a 
cut  on  the  under  side  of  the  branch  about  half-way  through 
the  limb  and  then  finish  the  removal  of  the  branch  by  sawing 
it  through  from  the  top. 


FIG.  66. — -Method  of  cutting  off  a  large  limb.  Note  the  two  cuts.  Dotted 
line  indicates  where  the  last  cut  should  be  made  after  the  limb  has  been 
removed. 

Pruning  the  Top  of  a  Plant. — The  pruning  of  the  branches  of 
a  plant  is  the  only  way  of  forming  a  good  symmetrical  top. 
The  forming  of  the  head  of  a  tree  is  by  far  the  most  important 
operation  in  the  growing  of  a  plant.  This  is  true  not  only  of 
the  commercial  orchard  but  of  the  home  orchard  or  the  orna- 
mental garden.  Shade  trees  also  require  some  systematic 
pruning,  because  their  beauty  largely  depends  upon  the  uni- 
formity of  their  top  both  in  their  dormant  as  well  as  in  their 
green  state. 


SUMMER  PRUNING  153 

When  the  top  of  a  plant  is  pruned,  it  requires  judgment  and 
experience.  If  a  tree  is  the  plant  which  is  to  be  pruned,  the 
most  important  consideration  is  the  location  of  the  branches 
along  the  trunk,  which  is  to  form  the  framework  of  the  tree. 
It  makes  little  difference  what  kind  of  a  tree  you  are  pruning 
at  this  early  stage,  the  principal  consideration  should  be  the 
even  and  equal  distribution  of  the  side  branches  along  the 
trunk.  There  should  be  no  crotches  allowed  to  remain,  and 
the  branches  should  be  distributed  uniformly,  so  that  the 
tree  will  be  well  balanced. 

In  most  trees  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  main  structural 
branches  of  the  tree  composed  of  from  three  to  five  limbs  of 
about  equal  size.  A  tree  should  never  be  allowed  to  divide 
into  two  limbs  which  again  subdivide  because  a  tree  of  this 
type  is  more  likely  to  split. 

If  a  bush  or  a  bramble  is  to  be  pruned,  the  proper  way 
is  to  remove  a  certain  number  of  the  canes.  These  canes 
should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
remainder  can  be  headed  back  if  necessary. 

Pruning  the  Roots  of  a  Plant. — The  pruning  of  the  roots 
of  any  plant  is  necessary  whenever  transplanting  is  done. 
Root  pruning  is  imperative  in  order  to  remove  any  broken 
or  mutilated  roots.  All  of  the  irregular  roots  should  be 
shortened  or  entirely  removed.  If  any  roots  are  killed  the 
dead  portions  should  be  cut  away  until  the  living  part  is 
reached.  The  pruning  should  be  done  with  a  sharp  knife. 
A  slanting  cut  should  be  made  and  in  such  a  way  that  the 
cut  surface  will  be  on  the  underside  of  the  root.  When  the 
tree  is  placed  in  position  the  cut  surfaces  should  come  in 
contact  with  the  soil  either  at  the  sides  or  the  bottom  of  the 
hole. 

Summer  Pruning. — The  pruning  of  certain  plants  in  the 
summer  is  important  from  several  standpoints.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  young  trees.  The  energy  of  a  young 
plant  should  be  directed  toward  the  development  of  a  stout 
trunk  and  framework.  If  an  exceptionally  good  tree  is  to  be 
formed,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  pinching  off 
of  the  undesirable  branches,  while  they  are  small/ and  before 
they  have  used  up  very  much  of  the  plant  food,  which  should 


154  PRUNING  OF  PLANTS 

go  to  other  parts  of  the  tree.  During  the  early  growth  these 
branches  are  easily  removed  and  can  usually  be  brushed  off 
very  satisfactorily  with  the  hands. 

Summer  pruning  is  not  only  of  value  to  the  small  trees  but 
is  practised  to  some  extent  on  the  larger  trees.  Under  some 
conditions  a  tree  will  refuse  to  set  fruit  buds,  and  throw  all 
its  energy  into  the  production  of  wood.  A  tree  of  this  kind,  if 
properly  handled,  can  be  made  to  produce  fruit  by  summer 
pruning.  To  secure  the  desired  results  the  priming  should 
usually  be  done  before  the  season  of  growth  ends,  because 
earlier  pruning  starts  new  growth  while  late  pruning  gives 
no  results.  In  summer  pruning  a  part  of  the  surplus  wood  is 
cut  out  and  other  branches  headed  back.  This  check  in  the 
growth  of  the  plant  at  this  time  has  a  tendency  to  make 
fruit  buds  form.  The  benefit  derived  from  summer  pruning 
depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  pruner  to  regulate  the  pruning 
in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  early  maturity. 

Winter  Pruning. — The  pruning  of  plants  during  the  dormant 
period  is  usually  spoken  of  as  winter  pruning.  The  dormant 
season  is  the  time  the  majority  of  pruning  is  done,  par- 
ticularly of  all  of  the  woody  plants.  The  winter  is  a  good  time 
to  perform  this  operation  for  several  reasons:  The  branches 
are  not  covered  with  leaves  and  are  easier  to  remove.  The 
framework  of  the  tree  is  visible  and  the  undesirable  parts 
can  easily  be  seen.  In  addition  to  these  facts  the  tree  is  in  a 
period  of  rest  and  the  removal  of  a  limb,  by  pruning,  is  no 
injury  to  the  plant.  Certain  plants,  like  the  grapes  and  maple 
trees,  bleed  profusely  if  not  pruned  while  they  are  dormant. 

The  Pruning  of  Young  Trees. — The  pruning  of  a  young 
tree  differs  greatly  from  that  of  a  mature  tree.  The  object 
in  the  pruning  of  young  trees  is  to  shape  their  form  and  to 
develop  a  uniform  and  a  symmetrical  top. 

Young  trees  are  always  more  vigorous  growers  than  old 
ones.  Greater  annual  growth  is  always  made,  and  because 
of  this  rapid  accumulation  of  wood  it  becomes  necessary  to 
shorten  some  of  the  branches  and  to  entirely  remove  others, 
in  order  to  prepare  a  good  framework  for  the  tree.  Young 
trees  are  usually  pruned  more  heavily  than  old  trees.  Pruning 
of  a  young  tree  should  be  done  every  year  for  at  least  five 


PRUNING  OF  BEARING  TREES 


155 


or  six  years  after  the  tree  is  planted.    In  some  trees  pruning 
will  be  necessary  for  a  longer  time. 

The  Pruning  of  Bearing  Trees. — As  soon  as  a  young  tree 
has  passed  its  formative  period,   when  the  general  shape 
is  developed,  a  modified  pruning  is  necessary.    This  period 
is  reached  when  the  tree  is 
from  five  to  ten  years  old. 
It  is  now  beginning  to  ap- 
proach the   bearing  time. 
Pruning  at  this  time  can 
be    done   in    the   summer 
and  must  be  modified  with 

\ 


FIG.  67. — The  proper  distribu- 
tion of  the  main  branches  on  a 
young  tree. 


FIG.  68. — Heading  back  of  a  one- 
year-old  tree. 


the  idea  of  trying  to  induce  fruitfulness.  No  definite  time 
can  be  set,  but  it  is  recommended  that  pruning  be  done 
at  the  time  the  terminal  buds  are  forming  on  the  ends  of 
the  shoots.  At  this  time  the  terminal  shoots  may  be  cut 
back  to  a  point  where  it  is  desired  to  force  out  new  lateral 
branches.  The  results  from  such  treatment  are  sometimes 


156  PRUNING  OF  PLANTS 

immediate,  and  again  they  are  not  seen  for  two  or  three 

•\TOQ  T»C 

As  the  tree  grows  older,  and  the  terminal  growth  threatens 
to  become  excessively  long,  it  should  be  cut  back,  and  the 
tree  thinned  out.  This  pruning  is  usually  done  some  time  in 
June,  although  it  should  usually  be  distributed  over  two 
periods  in  order  to  avoid  excessive  pruning  at  one  time. 


FlG   69  __The  proper  way  to  cut  off  FIG.   70.— A  large   wound   en- 

a  large  limb.     Note  how  the  wounds  tirely  healed  over, 

are  healing. 

The  Pruning  of  Old  Trees.— The  object  in  pruning  an  old 
tree  is  merely  to  keep  the  branches  thinned  out,  to  remove  any 
water  sprouts  that  may  occur  and  to  take  out  all  limbs  that 
are  interfering  with  each  other.  If  the  tree  has  been  system- 
atically pruned  during  its  early  growth  very  little  pruning  will 


PRUNING  OF  OLD  TREES 


157 


be  necessary  as  the  tree  gets  older.  Occasionally  large  limbs 
must  be  cut  off  for  various  causes.  When  this  operation  is 
made  necessary,  care  must  be  taken  to  make  clean,  smooth 
cuts.  The  wounded  part  should  be  covered  with  some 


FIG.  71. — An  injured  tree  repaired  with  cement. 


material  like  white  lead  paint  to  protect  the  open  cut.  Occa- 
sionally grafting  wax  is  used,  but  this  material  is  expensive 
and  not  very  satisfactory.  Other  materials  have  often  been 
recommended,  but  the  safest  course  to  follow  is  to  apply  those 


158  PRUNING  OF  PLANTS 

materials  which  are  known  to  be  safe  and  efficient.  The 
wound  dressing  should  be  applied  carefully  and  the  careless 
daubing  of  the  surrounding  bark  should  be  avoided. 

When  pruning  old  trees  the  operator  should  be  furnished 
with  good  tools,  and  particularly  good  pruning  saws.  These 
tools  must  be  sharp  so  that  clean,  smooth  surfaces  are  made. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Define  pruning. 

2.  Name  three  causes  for  pruning. 

3.  Why  do  plants  require  pruning? 

4.  Tell  how  a  wound  on  a  plant  is  healed. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  balance  or  equilibrium  of  a  plant? 

6.  How  are  these  influenced  by  pruning? 

7.  Discuss  the  proper  time  for  the  pruning  of  plants. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  summer  and  winter  pruning? 

9.  What  materials  are  best  suited  for  protecting  a  wound? 

10.  Why  are  special  pruning  tools  advisable? 

11.  What  defects  are  found  in  a  double-edge  pruning  saw? 

12.  What  is  the  proper  way  to  remove  a  large  limb? 

13.  Distinguish  between  the  pruning  of  a  young  and  an  old  tree. 

14.  Discuss  the  pruning  of  a  bearing  tree. 

15.  What  causes  give  rise  to  the  necessity  of  pruning? 

16.  Discuss  the  effects  of  pruning. 

17.  Discuss  top  pruning  of  a  plant. 

18.  Give  the  differences  in  the  pruning  of  the  branches  and  the  roots  of  a 
plant. 

19.  What  benefit  is  derived  from  summer  pruning? 

20.  How  does  winter  pruning  differ  from  summer  pruning? 


CHAPTER  X. 
HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING. 

THE  grower  is  the  producer.  He  is  the  man  who  furnishes 
produce,  and  this  is  true  with  fruits  and  vegetables  as  well  as 
all  agricultural  crops.  Most  growers  are  honest,  but  they  are 
poor  business  men,  and  their  lack  of  knowledge  concerning 
business  ways  often  cause  many  failures.  The  producer 
should  realize  that  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  grow  the 
produce  well,  but  it  is  equally  as  important  to  harvest  it 
properly.  If  the  produce  is  well  harvested  and  properly 
packed  there  is  a  market  for  it.  There  is  always  a  demand  for 
fancy  or  first-class  products,  but  poor  and  second-class  goods 
are  usually  a  loss  to  the  producer. 

Harvesting  Produce. — All  produce,  whether  vegetables  or 
fruit,  must  be  carefully  harvested.  It  is  essential  to  gather  it 
at  the  proper  time.  The  time  for  picking  produce  necessarily 
varies,  and  it  is  determined  chiefly  as  to  whether  it  is  for  local 
or  for  distant  consumption. 

All  produce  that  is  harvested  should  be  made  presentable. 
Such  crops  as  the  potatoes,  radishes,  turnips  and  a  few 
others  should  be  washed  before  they  are  sold.  Some  crops 
should  also  be  graded  in  order  to  make  a  uniform  package. 

Many  of  the  horticultural  crops  should  be  harvested  at 
a  definite  time.  This  is  particularly  true  of  such  crops  as 
the  strawberries,  blackberries,  tomatoes,  melons,  sweet  corn 
and  many  others.  If  these  crops  of  a  perishable  nature  are 
allowed  to  remain  too  long  on  the  plant  they  become  inferior 
in  quality,  and  in  many  cases  they  are  a  total  loss.  Crops 
of  this  kind  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  and 
they  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  over-ripe,  because 
an  over-ripe  product  is  as  worthless  as  a  green  product. 

Harvesting  Period. — The  period  during  which  all  crops 
should  be  harvested  varies  with  the  crop.  Certain  crops,  as 


160  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

for  example  the  potato,  late  cabbage,  apples,  peaches  and 
many  others,  can  be  harvested  at  one  time  and  as  soon  as  the 
crop  is  matured.  Other  crops  like  the  melon,  peppers, 
cucumbers,  summer  squash  and  several  more  can  be  harvested 
over  a  longer  period  of  time.  Prompt  picking  of  the  indi- 
vidual specimens  of  the  latter  class  is  important.  In  a  few 
crops  like  the  sweet  corn,  peas  and  green  beans  the  harvesting 
period  is  short  but  it  extends  over  several  days  and  two  or 
three  pickings  are  usually  necessary  in  order  to  gather  the 
entire  crop.  Such  fruits  as  the  blackbenies,  raspberries  and 
strawberries  often  require  many  pickings  before  the  crop  is 
harvested,  while  other  plants  like  the  radishes,  beets  and 
carrots  must  be  picked  at  different  times  to  insure  good 
quality. 

The  market  to  a  large  degree  regulates  the  time  at  which 
some  crops  are  harvested.  If  the  price  is  high,  it  often  pays 
to  harvest  a  few  crops  before  they  are  matured,  as,  for 
example,  the  potato.  The  increase  in  the  price  more  than 
offsets  the  loss  in  the  yield.  This  early  harvesting  of  the  crop 
is  often  done  in  the  case  of  the  early  cabbage,  the  lettuce  and 
the  spinach.  When  the  price  is  high  and  the  crop  is  harvested 
before  it  is  matured  it  should  not  be  removed  from  the  plant 
until  the  time  arrives  to  sell  it.  Some  immatured  crops,  as, 
for  example,  the  potato  will  only  keep  for  a  short  time  after 
they  are  removed  from  the  plant.  Premature  harvesting 
of  a  few  crops  is  very  profitable,  but  judgment  should  be 
exercised  when  this  practice  is  followed. 

Care  of  Produce  between  Harvesting  and  Marketing. — All 
produce  which  is  perishable  must  be  carried  to  a  cool  place 
as  soon  as  it  is  picked  from  the  plant.  Exposure  to  the  sun 
should  be  avoided.  When  the  produce  remains  in  the  field 
for  a  short  time  after  it  is  gathered  and  before  it  is  packed  it 
should  be  shaded  or  covered  up.  The  exposure  of  produce  to 
winds  is  very  detrimental  and  causes  it  to  wilt  and  to  dry 
out.  Exposure  of  any  kind  injures  the  quality  and  reduces 
the  price.  All  vegetables  and  fruits  contain  a  large  percent- 
age of  water,  which  gives  the  ciispness  and  freshness  to  them. 
The  amount  of  water  present  usually  determines  the  value 
of  the  produce.  Therefore  any  means  which  can  be  used  to 


KINDS  OF  PACKAGES  161 

hold  this  water  in  the  fruit  or  the  vegetable  will  not  only 
improve  its  quality  but  will  increase  the  price  which  it  will 
bring  when  it  is  placed  upon  the  market. 

Certain  crops  must  be  washed  and  graded  before  they  are 
packed.  Whenever  washing  is  necessary,  handle  the  produce 
carefully  and  do  not  scratch  or  tear  the  skin.  Any  injury  to 
the  skin  gives  an  opportunity  for  mould  and  bacteria  to  get 
into  the  injured  part  and  the  product  will  rot.  The  marring 
of  the  skin  in  any  way  also  detracts  from  the  looks  of  the 
package.  Some  crops  like  the  radishes  and  the  carrots  must 
not  only  be  washed  but  they  must  be  graded  and  tied  in 
bunches  before  they  are  sent  to  the  market.  The  harvesting, 
grading,  washing  and  packing  should  be  done  without  delay 
and  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  taken  from  either  the  plant  or  the 
soil. 

Grading  Produce. — All  of  our  fruits  and  vegetables  should  be 
graded.  The  chief  reason  for  grading  is  the  poor  impression 
a  mixed  lot  of  produce  gives  to  the  buyer.  A  few  large  apples 
or  potatoes  in  a  barrel  do  not  add  to  the  value  of  the  pack- 
age but  only  emphasize  the  lack  of  uniformity  of  the  lot.  In 
grading  pick  out  all  of  the  large  specimens  as  well  as  the  small 
ones  and  make  the  carrier  contain  produce  of  one  size.  This 
method  of  grading  makes  the  package  uniform,  attracts  the 
eye  and  pleases  the  buyer.  It  is  not  always  the  large  speci- 
mens that  bring  the  best  price,  but  rather  the  uniform 
appearance  of  the  package  that  is  of  the  greatest  value. 

Kinds  of  Packages. — The  style  of  package  varies  greatly 
and  is  determined  by  the  product  to  be  packed.  Fruit  is 
usually  packed  in  either  boxes  or  barrels.  The  size  of  the 
boxes  vary,  but  they  usually  hold  approximately  one  bushel 
of  fruit.  Box  apples  are  generally  fancy  fruit.  In  the 
eastern  fruit-growing  sections  the  barrel  is  the  usual  package 
for  apples  while  in  the  western  regions  the  box  is  the  most 
popular.  The  barrel  holds  about  three  bushels  and  is  very 
convenient  for  storage  and  for  shipment. 

Vegetables  are  packed  in  many  different  styles  of  vessels 

and  many  high-class  products  are  placed  in  special  baskets 

or  cartons.     A  few  crops  as,  for  example,  the  cabbage  is 

marketed  in  ventilated  barrels,  which  are  made  by  cutting 

U 


162 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


out  a  part  of  several  staves  of  the  barrel  so  that  air  can 
circulate  through  the  produce.  Sometimes  cabbage  is  packed 
in  crates  made  of  slats,  which  will  hold  about  one  hundred 
heads. 

Celery  is  shipped  in  small  flat  boxes.  These  boxes  are 
called  celery  crates  and  vary  slightly  in  size,  depending 
upon  the  locality. 


FIG.  72. — A  good  type  of  celery  crate,  well  packed. 


Tomatoes  are  packed  in  baskets,  which  fit  into  special 
crates.  When  the  tomatoes  are  packed  in  crates  they  are 
usually  intended  for  long-distant  shipment.  For  local  trade, 
however,  the  half-bushel  split  market  basket  is  the  most 
popular. 

Potatoes  are  usually  marketed  in  gunny  sacks,  but  some- 
times they  are  delivered  to  the  local  trade  in  bushel  baskets. 

This  variation  in  packages  is  due  largely  to  the  locality 
in  which  the  product  is  grown  and  also  as  to  whether  it  is 
a  short-  or  a  long-distance  shipment.  Occasionally  special 
markets  will  demand  a  certain  kind  of  a  carrier,  and  the 
grower  must  then  use  that  kind  of  a  package. 


PACKING  FOR  LOCAL  AND  DISTANT  MARKET     163 

It  makes  very  little  difference  as  to  the  kind  of  a  package 
the  grower  markets  his  produce  in  if  each  container  is  filled 


FIG.    73. — The   onion   shipped  FIG.  74. — Showing  the  bulge  on  an 

in  a  loose  woven  sack.  orange  box  which  is  necessary  for  good 

packing. 

with  a  uniform  product  of  the  best  quality.      However, 
standardization  of  packages  is  fast  becoming  important. 

Preparing  Produce  for  Local  and  Distant  Market. — The  time 
at  which  fruit  and  vegetables  are  picked  is  determined  largely 
by  the  market.  If  the  produce  is  sold  in  a  local  market  it  is 


FIG.  75. — Radishes  and  spinach  packed  in  the  Delaware  basket. 

not  harvested  as  soon  as  when  it  is  sold  in  a  distant  market. 
It  is  always  preferable  to  allow  the  produce  to  ripen  upon 


164 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


the  plant,  because  the  quality  is  greatly  improved.  Produce 
can  only  be  allowed  to  ripen  upon  the  plant  when  a  local 
market  is  used.  In  such  cases  the  product  is  gathered  one 
afternoon  and  sold  early  the  next  morning.  By  this  method 
all  produce  is  fresh  and  of  good  quality. 


FIG.  76. — Celery  cabbage  wrapped  separately  and  packed  in  uniform 

crates. 

The  condition  is  very  different  if  we  are  shipping  to  a  dis- 
tant market.  Ripe  fruits  or  vegetables  soon  rot.  The  tissue 
is  soft  and  the  produce  will  not  stand  handling.  Juices  from 
one  fruit  often  leak  out  and  ruin  an  entire  crate.  Therefore 


FIG.  77. — Cauliflower  packed  in  a  ventilated  crate. 

great  care  must  be  exercised  in  selecting  and  in  harvesting 
produce  for  distant^ shipment.  In  almost  every  case  the 
produce  must  of  necessity  be  picked  when  it  is  partially 
matured  and  still  green.  This  lack  of  maturity  makes  the 


QUALITY  OF  THE  PACKAGE  165 

quality  inferior,  but  it  is  the  only  way  in  which  some  products 
can  be  shipped.  If  the  fruits  are  green,  they  are  hard  and 
firm  and  will  stand  transit.  During  shipment  or  shortly 
afterward,  the  produce  will  ripen,  and  will  be  ready  for  sale 
upon  arriving  at  their  destination,  provided  they  have  been 
properly  selected  at  the  time  of  harvesting.  The  tomato, 
melon  and  peach  are  some  crops  that  are  always  picked 
green  if  they  are  to  be  shipped  to  a  distant  market. 

Packing  for  Local  and  for  Distant  Market. — The  packing  of 
produce  for  a  local  trade  differs  from  the  packing  for  a  long- 
distance shipment.  The  products  for  home  trade  can  often- 
times be  marketed  in  a  great  variety  of  vessels.  Grading  is 
perhaps  more  important  for  the  local  trade  than  is  the  kind 
of  a  package  and  too  often  the  proper  grading  of  an  article  is 
overlooked  for  home  consumption.  Usually  the  home  trade 
consumes  the  produce  at  once  and  no  means  of  shipment  is 
necessary.  The  produce  can  be  delivered  to  the  consumer  in 
any  vessel  that  is  convenient  as,  for  example,  market  baskets, 
bushel  baskets,  barrels  and  boxes. 

When  long-distance  shipments  are  made  the  kind  of  a  pack- 
age becomes  a  very  important  problem.  The  grower  must 
realize  that  he  is  dealing  with  men  in  a  different  section,  and 
that  his  produce  must  arrive  at  its  destination  in  good  condi- 
tion. The  packages  must  be  uniform  and  not  of  varying  sizes 
and  shapes  or  there  would  be  no  means  of  ascertaining  the 
value  of  his  shipment.  Each  package  must  contain  a  definite 
quantity.  The  quality  of  the  package  must  be  uniform.  In 
some  cases  each  fruit  must  be  wrapped  separately  as,  for 
example,  the  tomato  and  the  melon.  Some  crops  like  the 
celery  must  be  tied  up  in  bunches  of  a  definite  size.  Lettuce 
is  often  packed  in  chopped  ice,  so  that  it  will  not  wilt  but  will 
arrive  at  its  destination  in  good  condition.  Strawberries 
are  packed  in  special  boxes  which  resemble  large  ice-boxes. 
A  number  of  crates  are  placed  in  one  of  these  large  boxes  and 
ice  is  packed  in  several  compartments  so  that  the  berries 
will  be  cold  and  remain  firm. 

Quality  of  the  Package. — Inferior  or  mixed  packages  should 
never  be  made.  A  thing  worth  doing  is  worth  doing  well  and 
attempted  deception  in  a  package  is  bound  to  react  upon  the 


166  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

grower.  Label  your  packages  so  that  every  buyer  knows 
what  he  is  purchasing.  The  quality  of  the  package  should 
be  plainly  stated.  The  package  should  be  labelled  fancy 
No.  1  or  No.  2,  so  that  the  buyer  is  not  deceived.  Always 
make  the  package  uniform  in  contents,  no  matter  what  the 
grade  might  be. 

People  in  general  have  recognized  that  quality  and  not 
quantity  in  produce  is  what  they  want.  Often  a  small  lot  of 
well  selected  and  fancy  produce  will  sell  for  more  than  a 
wagon  load  of  rubbish. 

The  home-grown  product  will  oftentimes  bring  more  than 
that  shipped  from  regions  where  the  crop  is  grown  in  great 
acreages.  Occasionally  the  prices  of  the  home-grown  product 
is  often  several  times  that  of  the  shipped  product.  This 
great  difference  in  price  is  due  largely  to  the  quality,  but  the 
public  is  willing  to  pay  for  it.  I  have  one  case  in  mind  with 
the  tomato.  A  grower  has  consistently  received  considerably 
more  for  his  home-grown  fruit  than  was  paid  for  the  shipped 
product.  This  increase  in  price  was  due  to  the  superior 
quality.  There  are  numerous  other  cases,  which  could  be 
mentioned  to  prove  the  value  of  quality. 

Standardized  Grades  and  Packs. — A  standard  grade  and 
pack  is  fast  coming  into  practice.  In  fact  it  must  ultimately 
be  adopted  if  the  best  markets  are  to  be  considered.  A 
standard  grade  is  essential  and  imperative  if  we  are  to  arrive 
at  a  definite  price  for  a  given  product.  Where  all  sizes, 
shapes  and  grades  of  products  exist,  the  buyer  has  no  guide 
on  which  to  base  his  price,  and,  as  a  result,  there  is  a  great 
range  in  prices.  With  a  standard  to  go  by,  the  value  of  a 
product  is  easily  established,  which  will  be  uniform  over  the 
country. 

The  standard  adopted  will  vary  with  the  product.  The 
bushel  box  containing  so  many  apples  is  now  practically 
standard  and  if  we  buy  a  box  of  apples  in  New  York  or  in 
San  Francisco  we  know  just  how  many  and  what  grade  we 
are  getting.  This  is  also  true  of  the  oranges  and  the  lemons. 
It  is  not  true,  however,  of  many  of  the  other  horticultural 
crops.  For  instance,  the  celery  crate  might  contain  two  dozen 
bunches  or  ten  dozen  bunches,  yet  both  are  spoken  of  as  a 


STANDARDIZED  GRADES  AND  PACKS  167 

crate  of  celery  with  no  means  of  ascertaining  what  quantity 
is  represented.  The  same  is  true  of  some  other  crops  that 
are  sold  by  the  bushel.  The  weight  of  this  measure  varies 
in  the  different  states  and  in  Nebraska  the  standard  weight 
of  a  bushel  of  onions  is  57  pounds  while  in  Iowa  the  standard 
weight  is  only  52  pounds  or  a  difference  of  5  pounds.  Now 
suppose  a  buyer  in  Chicago  purchases  onions  from  both  states 
by  the  bushel,  he  immediately  meets  with  difficulty.  Because 
of  this  varying  condition  over  the  country,  some  means  of 
establishing  a  definite  unit  is  necessary.  The  tendency, 
however,  is  to  select  the  pound  as  a  unit  and  in  many  places 
the  buyers  are  insisting  on  quotations  by  the  hundred  which 
is  a  definite  unit  and  will  be  uniform  in  all  states.  This  unit 
is  also  more  satisfactory  to  the  purchaser,  because  where 
products  are  purchased  by  the  pound  there  is  no  chance  for 
the  vendor  to  "stack  the  measure,"  as  is  often  done  when 
buying  by  the  measure. 

In  addition  to  the  standard  pack  or  unit  we  should  also 
establish  standard  grades  of  certain  products.  This  practice 
is  common  with  the  apples  and  oranges,  the  fruit  being 
graded  into  sizes.  A  standard  grade  is  also  attempted  in  the 
case  of  the  potato,  but  it  is  not  so  easily  accomplished .  The 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  recommends  two 
standard  grades  for  potatoes  as  follows:  United  States 
Grade  No.  1  consists  of  sound  potatoes  of  similar  varietal 
characteristics  which  are  perfectly  free  from  dirt  or  other 
foreign  matter,  frost  injury,  sunburn,  second  growth,  cuts, 
scab,  blight,  dry  rot,  and  damage  caused  by  disease,  insects 
or  mechanical  means.  The  minimum  diameter  of  the  potatoes 
of  the  round  varieties  shall  be  one  and  seven-eighths  inches 
and  of  potatoes  of  the  long  varieties  one  and  three-quarter 
inches.  In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  com- 
mercial grading  and  handling,  5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  any 
lot  may  be  under  the  prescribed  size  and  in  addition  3  per 
cent,  by  weight  may  be  below  the  remaining  requirement  of 
this  grade.  United  States  Grade  No.  2  consists  of  potatoes 
of  similar  varietal  characteristics,  which  are  practically  free 
from  frost  injury  or  decay,  and  which  are  free  from  serious 
damage  caused  by  dirt  or  other  foreign  matter,  sunburn, 


168  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

second  growth,  cuts,  scab,  blight,  dry  rot  or  other  diseases, 
insects  or  mechanical  means.  The  minimum  diameter  shall 
be  one  and  one-half  inches.  In  order  to  allow  for  variations 
incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling,  5  per  cent,  by 
weight  of  any  lot  may  be  under  the  prescribed  size  and  in 
addition,  5  per  cent,  by  weight  may  be  below  the  remaining 
requirements  of  this  grade. 

The  establishing  of  definite  grades  for  each  product  is  not 
far  distant  and  will  not  only  be  a  decided  advantage  to  the 
buyer  but  a  great  help  to  the  producer. 

Packing  Supplies. — The  packing  supplies  are  not  numerous. 
A  few  of  the  most  important  are  crates,  wrapping  paper, 
printed  labels,  cushions  and  packing  tables.  As  the  standardi- 
zation of  products  becomes  more  general,  proper  packing 
supplies  will  be  greatly  developed  and  perhaps  the  number 
enlarged  to  conform  to  the  set  standard. 

All  supplies  should  be  purchased  in  advance  of  the  harvest- 
ing time,  because  when  you  delay,  much  grief  and  disappoint- 
ment is  bound  to  come.  In  buying,  purchase  liberally  in 
order  to  have  plenty  of  material  so  that  you  do  not  run  out 
in  the  middle  of  your  harvest.  As  soon  as  the  supplies  arrive, 
check  them  over,  and  measure  all  of  the  material  to  see  that 
it  conforms  to  the  standard  pack.  Do  not  accept  second 
class  material  or  any  substitute  from  the  specification  that 
will  break  the  standard  pack. 

The  boxes  or  crates  should  be  nailed  together  before 
harvesting  tune  begins,  or  at  least  as  many  as  you  can  store 
conveniently.  See  that  all  crates  are  nailed  securely  in  order 
to  avoid  breakage  and  consequently  damage  to  the  product 
and  loss  to  the  grower. 

A  good  supply  of  packing  paper  is  necessary.  This  is 
more  important  in  the  packing  of  certain  products  such  as 
apples,  oranges,  peaches,  tomatoes  and  a  few  more  than  with 
some  other  products,  and  the  nature  of  the  crop  grown  will 
determine  the  necessity  of  this  material.  Be  sure  to  have 
the  paper  cut  the  proper  size  because  it  is  more  convenient 
and  saves  time  and  labor.  The  paper  used  to  wrap  the 
product  should  be  of  a  rather  soft  texture,  with  one  side 
somewhat  smooth.  For  the  wrapping  of  certain  products 


MARKETING  AGENCIES  169 

the  most  progressive  growers  have  their  names  and  some 
monograph  printed  on  each  wrapper..  This  lends  dignity 
to  the  pack  and  establishes  and  advertises  the  brand. 

Every  crate  or  box  that  leaves  the  grower  should  be 
labelled.  The  label  should  be  attractive  but  not  gaudy. 
Subdued  colors  that  harmonize  are  to  be  preferred.  The 
label  should  display  some  scene  in  the  growing  of  the  crop 
or  something  to  call  attention  to  the  attractiveness  and 
value  of  the  product.  In  addition  it  should  plainly  state 
the  quality  and  quantity  included  in  the  pack  and  by  whom 
it  was  grown.  A  trade  mark  should  be  established  and 
registered. 

Marketing  Agencies. — There  are  five  distinct  marketing 
agencies,  namely  the  broker,  jobber,  commission  man, 
retailer  and  selling  associations.  These  overlap  occasionally 
although  they  are  distinct  in  purpose.  The  direct  method  of 
selling  from  producer  to  consumer  is  gaining  in  importance 
and  having  its  effect  on  the  market,  but  the  middle  man,  so 
called,  will  always  fill  a  place  in  large  transactions  and  is 
a  force  to  be  considered.  Each  has  a  special  function  in 
business  and  each  is  necessary. 

The  Broker. — The  broker  is  a  medium  of  communication 
between  the  buyer  and  the  seller.  Sometimes  the  grower 
will  sell  his  goods  through  a  broker  in  some  distant  town 
which  makes  the  broker  virtually  the  agent  for  the  grower. 
Oftentimes  a  broker  is  an  agent  for  many  growers  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  and  handles  many  different  products. 
A  broker  also  sells  direct  to  the  retailer  but  more  especially 
to  the  jobber  or  to  the  commission  man. 

The  Commission  Man. — A  common  way  of  selling  produce 
is  for  the  grower  to  consign  a  shipment  of  products  to  a  man 
who  disposes  of  it  on  a  certain  percentage  or  commission. 
Such  a  man  is  called  a  commission  man.  Some  commission 
men  are  honest  and  some  are  not  and  as  a  class  they  have 
come  into  general  disfavor.  The  fault,  however,  is  not  always 
with  the  commission  man  but  many  times  the  growers  are 
at  fault.  The  growers  often  ship  their  produce  in  poor  shape 
and  it  arrives  at  the  market  in  a  deplorable  condition  and  the 
commission  man  is  given  the  credit  for  the  low  price  received 


170  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

for  it.  Nevertheless  the  commission  men  have  done  a  great 
deal  to  develop  the  produce  industry  and  we  will  probably 
never  be  able  to  dispense  with  them.  The  grower  should 
assure  himself  of  the  honesty  and  integrity  of  the  commission 
man  before  dealing  with  him. 

The  Jobber. — A  jobber  is  a  man  that  usually  purchases 
produce  from  the  commission  man.  Such  men  usually  have 
a  special  trade  such  as  hotels,  clubs  and  some  retail  stores 
which  they  supply  with  their  commodities.  The  jobber  also 
buys  direct  from  the  grower  and  might  also  buy  from  the 
broker.  His  function  is  chiefly  to  buy  in  rather  large  quanti- 
ties and  parcel  the  produce  out  to  smaller  buyers  or  retailers. 

The  Retailer. — The  retailer  is  the  man  that  sells  direct  to 
the  consumer.  He  depends  upon  getting  his  supply  from  the 
commission  man,  the  jobber,  and  in  many  cases  direct  from 
the  grower.  Seasonable  products  are  oftentimes  purchased 
from  the  grower,  but  during  off  seasons  and  out  of  season 
products  must  be  purchased  from  other  agencies.  As  a  rule 
the  retailer  must  look  to  the  jobber  or  commission  man  to 
keep  him  supplied  uniformly  throughout  the  year  with  all 
commodities.  This  serves  then  to  emphasize  the  impor- 
tance of  the  jobber  and  commission  man  in  maintaining  a 
steady  supply  of  products  the  year  round.  Oftentimes  a 
grower  will  ship  direct  to  the  retailer,  but  in  such  cases  the 
grower  should  pack  his  product  especially  for  the  retailer 
and  aim  to  establish  a  name  for  his  products. 

Selling  Associations. — The  selling  association  is  the  most 
recent  development  in  the  manner  of  disposing  of  products. 
The  principle  of  an  association  of  this  kind  is  through  the 
union  of  a  number  of  growers  of  a  certain  crop.  It  is  devel- 
oped chiefly  to  help  the  grower  realize  a  fair  profit  by  doing 
away  with  some  of  the  middlemen. 

Selling  associations  are  greatly  developed  along  the  Pacific 
coast  and  were  perhaps  perfected  to  the  greatest  degree  in 
that  region  because  of  .the  long  distance  to  ship  and  the 
need  of  cooperation  among  the  growers.  At  the  present 
time  this  form  of  selling  is  gaining  in  popularity  and  many 
associations  are  being  formed  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

The  most  effective  way  of  handling  an  association  is  to 


TRANSPORT  A  TION  171 

combine  a  number  of  small  associations  into  a  large  organi- 
zation where  each  small  association  has  a  representative.  A 
larger  association  has  the  advantage  of  greater  sales,  it  can 
furnish  valuable  information  to  the  grower  at  less  expense, 
it  is  in  constant  touch  with  all  the  markets  and  it  prevents 
over-supply  in  one  market  and  a  shortage  in  another.  The 
distribution  is  also  very  efficient  and  the  field  is  covered  more 
evenly  at  a  minimum  of  expense. 

In  the  purchase  of  supplies  it  has  an  advantage.  When 
spray  materials  and  machinery  are  purchased  in  large 
quantities  and  in  carloads  they  can  be  purchased  at  a  lower 
price,  which  is  impossible  where  individual  growers  attempt 
to  buy  only  for  their  own  needs. 

Transportation. — Produce  is  shipped  in  two  ways,  either  by 
express  or  by  fast  freight  in  refrigeration  cars.  If  the  distance 
is  short,  express  is  perhaps  the  better;  but  when  long  dis- 
tances are  covered  it  becomes  necessary  to  ship  by  fast 
freight  and  to  have  the  produce  packed  in  ice-cooled  cars. 
Long-distance  shipments  require  carload  lots. 

These  cars  are  practically  large  ice-boxes.  The  produce  is 
cooled,  if  possible,  before  it  is  placed  in  the  cars,  but  this 
cooling  is  not  always  necessary.  After  the  produce  is  loaded 
and  packed  the  cars  are  iced  and  tightly  closed  up.  By 
handling  the  produce  in  this  manner  it  arrives  in  excellent 
condition,  and  oftentimes  fruits  and  vegetables  are  shipped 
thousands  of  miles,  arriving  on  the  market  in  a  fresh  state. 

Perhaps  no  greater  impetus  has  been  given  to  horticulture 
than  the  invention  of  the  iced  or  the  refrigerator  car.  Before 
this  means  of  transportation  came  into  use,  long-distance 
shipments  of  perishable  produce  were  impossible.  Only 
short  hauls  could  be  made,  and  many  times  the  express  rate 
was  so  high  that  the  shipping  of  produce  was  prohibitive. 
Improved  transportation  has  opened  up  great  areas  for  the 
production  of  fruit  and  vegetables.  Before  refrigeration  cars 
came  into  general  use  this  area  was  only  cheap  farm  lands. 
Fast  freight  with  iced  cars  has  made  it  possible  to  have 
fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  on  all  markets  the  entire  year,  and 
at  prices  which  are  not  prohibitive  for  the  general  public. 


172  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  it  important  to  harvest  all  produce  carefully? 

2.  Why  does  the  harvesting  period  vary?     Give  several  examples. 

3.  What  factors  tend  to  cause  the  harvesting  period  to  change? 

4.  What  care  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  highest  quality  in  produce 
after  it  is  gathered? 

5.  Discuss  the  value  of  grading  produce. 

6.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  a  variety  of  packages  for  shipping  pro- 
duce? 

7.  Why  must  produce  for  the  home  market  be  handled  differently  from 
that  for  a  distant  market? 

8.  Discuss  the  packing  of  produce  for  the  local  and  for  the  distant 
market. 

9.  How  does  the  quality  of  the  package  increase  its  value? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  standardization  of  grades  and  packs? 

11.  Why  is  a  standard  pack  essential? 

12.  Name  and  discuss  a  few  packing  supplies. 

13.  What  are  marketing  agencies? 

14.  How  does  a  broker  differ  from  a  commission  man? 

15.  What  is  the  chief  objection  to  a  commission  man? 

16.  What  is  meant  by  a  middle  man? 

17.  What  is  the  function  of  a  jobber? 

18.  How  does  a  jobber  differ  from  a  broker? 

19.  What  is  a  retailer? 

20.  On  what  principles  do  selling  associations  operate? 

21.  Discuss  the  two  ways  of  shipping  produce. 


CHAPTER  XL 
WINTER  PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS. 

THE  winter  care  of  plants  is  important.  The  death  of  a 
large  number  of  our  favorite  flowers  and  shrubs  is  due  to  neg- 
lect. A  plant,  like  an  animal,  needs  protection  even  though 
it  is  partially  hardy.  Oftentimes  abnormal  seasons  will  kill 
many  of  our  plants,  if  no  protection  is  given  to  them.  A 
strong  wind  will  not  only  break  down  the  plants  but  will 
cause  the  branches  and  the  twigs  to  dry  out  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  plant  cannot  recover  in  the  spring.  A  sudden  burst 
of  warm  weather  during  the  winter  months  is  very  destructive 
to  many  kinds  of  vegetation.  These  warm  spells  often  cause 
the  buds  to  start  growth,  which  are  later  killed  by  more  cold 
weather.  If  the  plants  are  properly  cared  for  and  protected 
in  some  manner  this  injury  is  prevented.  Alternate  freezing 
and  thawing  is  injurious  to  plant  life  and  it  should  be  pre- 
vented whenever  it  is  possible.  All  of  our  plants  should  be 
held  in  a  dormant  state  during  the  cold  weather  and  the 
closer  we  maintain  this  condition  the  greater  success  we  will 
have  in  the  wintering  of  our  plants. 

Fall  Preparation  of  a  Plant. — There  are  only  a  few  people 
who  realize  that  the  winter  protection  of  a  plant  should 
begin  during  the  late  summer.  In  order  to  have  the  plant 
ripen  up  its  wood,  preparatory  to  going  into  the  winter,  the 
water  supply  must  be  reduced.  When  a  plant  is  allowed  to 
grow  rapidly  until  late  in  the  season,  the  plant  tissue  is  filled 
with  new  cells,  the  cells  are  gorged  with  water,  and  much  of 
the  tissue  is  soft  and  green.  A  plant  entering  the  winter  in 
such  a  condition  is  sure  to  be  injured  and  sometimes  die. 

The  chief  object  then,  in  the  fall  preparation  of  a  plant,  is  to 
check  the  growth,  or  at  least  to  retard  it  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  plant  tissue  will  harden  and  the  wood  will  ripen. 
The  leaves  should  fall  naturally  and  the  leaf  scars  be  perfectly 
formed. 


174  WINTER  PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS 

There  are  several  ways  of  making  the  plant  ripen  up  its 
wood.  The  principal  method  is  to  check  its  growth  in  the 
late  summer  by  the  lack  of  water.  The  supply  of  water  is 
reduced  by  either  stopping  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  or  by 
planting  some  quick  growing  crop.  The  late  growing  plants 
will  rob  the  soil  of  its  moisture  and  thereby  take  it  away  from 
the  plant  you  intend  to  winter  over.  In  orchards  the  trees 
are  ripened  by  planting  a  cover  crop,  such  as  rye  or  clover, 
late  in  the  summer.  This  cover  crop  is  allowed  to  grow  the 
remainder  of  the  season.  These  quick  growing  crops  rapidly 
exhaust  the  soil  of  its  moisture  and  permit  the  greenwood 
of  the  trees  to  ripen  up  before  going  into  winter. 

Winter  Killing  of  a  Plant. — Some  of  the  horticultural  plants 
are  often  killed  by  exposure  to  the  cold  weather.  Such  a 
condition  is  called  winter  killing.  In  some  cases  only  a  part 
of  a  plant  is  winter-killed,  while  in  others  the  entire  plant  is 
killed.  Winter  killing  of  plants  is  not  due  to  any  disease  or 
any  insect,  but  it  is  due  only  to  exposure.  Authorities 
differ  as  to  what  is  the  direct  cause  of  winter  killing.  It  is 
thought,  however,  by  many  horticulturists  that  the  death 
of  the  plant  is  caused  by  the  loss  of  water  from  the  branches 
of  unprotected  plants  together  with  severe  weather.  Trans- 
piration, as  well  as  evaporation  of  the  water  in  a  woody 
plant,  takes  place  in  the  winter  as  well  as  in  the  summer.  If 
this  loss  of  water  becomes  excessive,  due  to  an  abnormal 
winter,  many  plants  are  killed.  Strong  winds  or  prolonged 
warm  weather  during  the  dormant  season  is  sure  to  cause 
much  winter  killing,  unless  the  plant  is  protected  in  some 
way.  Winter  killing  is  also  caused  when  the  plants  are  not 
properly  hardened  before  going  into  the  winter. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  better  way  of  preventing  winter  killing 
than  to  protect  a  plant  from  extreme  exposure.  The  plant 
can  be  protected  from  exposure  either  by  building  wind 
breaks,  or  by  covering  the  individual  plants  with  material 
of  various  kinds  such  as  rye  straw,  burlap  and  manure. 

The  Winter  Care  of  Herbaceous  Plants. — Plants  whose  tops 
die  down  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather  while  their  roots 
remain  alive  in  the  soil  over  winter  are  called  hardy  herbace- 
ous plants.  Such  plants  as  the  peony,  rhubarb  and  asparagus 


WINTER  CARE  OF  WOODY  PLANTS  175 

are  examples  of  the  hardy  herbaceous  plants.  These  plants 
need  special  care  if  the  roots  are  going  to  remain  alive  and 
produce  the  greatest  yields  the  following  spring. 

The  roots  of  such  plants  are  comparatively  shallow.  The 
depth  varies  from  six  inches  to  possibly  a  foot.  This  depth  is 
not  below  the  frost  line  and  consequently  the  roots  are 
frozen.  Since  the  roots  of  such  plants  are  large  and  fleshy 
it  is  very  important  to  keep  these  parts  frozen  when  once  they 
are  in  that  condition.  The  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of 
such  parts  is  injurious  to  the  plants  and  reduces  their  vitality. 
The  freezing  itself  is  not  injurious  but  the  roots  must  not  be 
allowed  to  thaw  out  until  spring. 

The  chief  way  of  preventing  the  alternate  freezing  and 
thawing  of  the  roots  is  to  cover  the  soil  over  the  roots  with 
fresh  horse  manure  that  has  plenty  of  litter  in  it.  The 
manure  should  consist  largely  of  straw  with  a  small  percentage 
of  the  solid  matter.  It  should  be  placed  over  the  roots  after 
the  ground  has  frozen  slightly  and  should  cover  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  from  8  to  10  inches.  The  manure  in  addition  to 
serving  as  a  protection  for  the  roots  adds  plant  food  to  the 
soil  which  increases  the  growth  of  the  plant  the  following 
spring. 

The  Winter  Care  of  Woody  Plants. — Woody  plants  include 
all  those  plants  whose  tops  do  not  die  down  during  the 
winter.  Our  common  trees  and  shrubs  are  good  examples. 
Many  of  the  woody  plants  are  able  to  withstand  the  cold 
weather  under  natural  conditions.  Occasionally  when  culti- 
vation is  prolonged  too  late  in  the  season,  many  plants  are 
injured  and  sometimes  killed.  Occasionally  some  tender 
trees  as,  for  example,  the  peach  must  be  protected  in  certain 
regions  to  prevent  them  from  being  frozen  back.  Likewise 
many  bushes  and  brambles  must  be  given  some  protection 
in  exposed  locations. 

The  branches  of  the  brambles  and  the  low  growing  bushes 
are  called  canes.  The  canes  as  a  rule  have  a  soft  substance 
in  their  center  called  pith.  The  pith  in  such  canes  prevents 
them  from  being  solid  and  in  some  cases  seems  to  render  the 
plants  less  hardy.  Common  examples  of  plants  with  a  pithy 
center  are  the  raspberries,  blackberries  and  roses. 


176 


WINTER  PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS 


Winter  protection  for  plants  of  this  kind  is  often  necessary. 
Sometimes  the  plantation  is  shielded  by  a  board  fence  or  a 
natural  wind  break  of  trees.  In  other  cases  strawy  manure 


FIG.  78. — Protecting  a  small  bush  by  a  straw  mulch. 

is  piled  up  through  the  canes  and  covered  over  the  ground. 
Many  times  each  plant  is  given  a  protection  of  its  own. 
This  latter  method  is  used  frequently  on  the  roses. 


FIG.  79. — Baby  rambler  roses  entirely  covered  with  straw  for  the  winter. 

The  rose  having  several  forms  offers  a  good  example  for 
discussion.  The  canes  of  upright  growing  bushes  should  first 
be  firmly  tied  together  with  a  cord.  Some  fibrous  material, 


WINTER  CARE  OF  WOODY  PLANTS 


177 


preferably  long  rye  straw,  is  secured  and  is  packed  about  the 
canes  and  tied  firmly  around  the  bush.     Occasionally  a  strip 


FIG.  80. — Climbing  roses  which  have  been  taken  from  their  supports  and 
heavily  mulched  with  straw  for  the  winter. 

of  burlap  or  a  gunny  sack  is  tied  over  the  straw  as  an  addi- 
tional protection  to  the  plant.     Other  types  of  roses  like 


FIG.  81. — A  good  way  to  protect  tender  trees. 

the  climbing  varieties  are  often  taken  down  from  their  sup- 
ports and  laid  on  the  ground.    After  they  are  placed  in  an 
12 


178       WINTER  PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS 

orderly  manner  on  the  ground  they  are  covered  up  with  straw 
to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet.  This  treatment  keeps  the 
plant  in  a  dormant  state  until  late  in  the  season  and  prevents 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  roots  and  the  branches. 
If  the  rose  bushes  are  small  and  planted  in  beds  all  of  the 
plants  in  the  bed  can  be  covered  up  with  straw.  The  straw 
should  be  placed  over  the  plants  rather  loosely  and  not 
packed  firmly  around  them  except  along  the  edges  of  the  bed. 

Mulching  the  Soil. — The  mulching  of  the  ground  is  a 
great  benefit  to  all  plants.  Not  all  plants  need  the  mulch 
as  a  protection,  but  many  are  greatly  benefited  in  growth 
by  having  this  treatment.  Plants  like  the  rhubarb  and  the 
asparagus,  while  not  requiring  a  mulch,  profit  from  it.  These 
plants  usually  require  no  mulch  as  a  protection  but  the 
growth  the  following  spring  is  more  rapid  and  the  plants 
are  of  better  quality  if  the  ground  is  mulched  with  manure 
during  the  winter.  The  plant  food  which  is  found  in  the 
manure  gradually  washes  out  and  is  deposited  in  the  soil. 
The  water  soaking  through  the  manure  gives  an  available 
supply  of  plant  food  early  in  the  spring  for  the  new  growth. 
The  mulching  of  the  soil  also  prevents  the  freezing  of  the 
ground  to  such  a  great  depth,  and  this  often  is  an  advantage 
to  the  plant.  When  a  soil  is  covered  with  a  mulch  it  helps 
to  hold  the  snow  and  the  rain  and  stores  up  more  moisture 
in  the  ground.  Likewise  it  prevents  the  loss  of  water  by 
retarding  the  evaporation  from  the  surface. 

Several  materials  are  used  for  mulches.  Straw,  leaves, 
coarse  manure,  prairie  grass  and  hay  are  among  the  chief 
materials  selected  for  this  purpose.  The  horse  manure, 
including  the  litter,  is  the  best,  and  it  should  be  used  when- 
ever it  is  possible  to  secure  it. 

The  methods  of  placing  the  mulching  material  around  the 
plants  differ  slightly.  Where  the  plant  is  small  and  stands 
alone  the  mulch  is  piled  around  the  plant  for  a  distance 
of  2  or  3  feet.  The  depth  of  the  mulch  varies  and  is  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  of  the  material.  If  leaves  are  used 
for  mulching  they  can  be  placed  2  or  3  feet  deep.  Usually 
some  means  of  holding  the  leaves  in  place  and  in  preventing 
them  from  blowing  away  will  be  necessary.  The  depth  to 


SPRING  TREATMENT  OF  MULCHED  PLANTS     179 

which  manure  is  placed  around  the  plants  depends  upon  its 
composition.  When  two-thirds  of  the  manure  is  litter,  a 
greater  amount  can  be  piled  around  the  plant,  than  when  it 
consists  largely  of  solid  matter.  A  conservative  amount  of 
the  ordinary  horse  manure  to  mulch  the  ground  around  a 
plant  is  about  1  foot.  The  mulch  should  not  be  piled  against 
the  plant  but  it  should  begin  about  3  or  4  inches  away  from 
it .  When  the  mulching  material  is  piled  up  against  the  plant 
it  often  induces  mice  to  harbor  near  it  and  these  rodents 
sometimes  eat  the  bark  and  cause  the  death  of  the  plant. 

The  beds  of  herbaceous  perennial  plants  should  be  mulched 
every  fall.  Plants  like  the  peonies,  rhubarb,  asparagus, 
strawberries  and  many  others  respond  wonderfully  to  such 
treatment.  Herbaceous  perennial  plants  are  usually  set  in 
beds  and  placed  rather  closely  together.  Because  of  this 
method  of  growing,  it  is  better  to  cover  the  entire  bed  with 
the  mulch.  Fresh  horse  manure  which  is  composed  largely 
of  straw  is  the  best  kind  of  a  mulch.  The  mulch  should  be 
spread  on  the  ground  before  severe  cold  weather  arrives. 
From  6  to  8  inches  of  the  mulch  is  the  proper  amount  to  use. 
The  material  should  be  distributed  uniformly  over  the  bed. 

Spring  Treatment  of  Mulched  Plants. — The  spring  treat- 
ment of  plants  which  have  been  mulched,  differs  according  to 
the  plant.  The  mulch  around  woody  plants  such  as  small 
ornamental  trees  and  bushes,  like  the  roses,  should  not  be 
removed.  By  the  time  spring  arrives  the  mulch  will  have 
settled  down  and  will  hardly  be  noticeable.  Two  methods 
of  treatment  are  employed  in  such  cases.  If  the  plants  are 
not  too  small  the  mulch  is  usually  left  undisturbed  and  more 
added  each  year  as  the  old  material  rots  and  gradually 
disappears  by  becoming  a  part  of  the  soil.  If  the  plants  are 
larger  and  the  mulch  has  been  extended  to  the  limit  of  the 
drip  of  the  branches,  it  is  usually  spaded  under  and  incor- 
porated with  the  soil  to  make  more  plant  food. 

For  herbaceous  plants  a  somewhat  different  treatment  is 
required.  In  such  plants  as  the  strawberries,  rhubarb, 
asparagus  and  peonies  the  mulch  is  gently  raked  from  the 
crown  of  the  plants  early  in  the  spring,  just  as  the  new  growth 
is  starting.  The  material  used  for  the  mulch  should  not  be 


180  WINTER  PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS 

removed  from  the  bed,  but  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
between  the  rows,  and  either  spaded  under  or  permitted  to 
decay  of  its  own  accord  on  the  bed. 

Winter  Care  of  Bulbs  and  Roots. — The  bulbs  and  the  fleshy- 
rooted  plants  require  a  treatment  similar  to  that  of  the 
herbaceous  plants.  The  bulb  and  the  fleshy  root  is  a  vege- 
tative part  of  a  plant  in  a  dormant  state.  A  large  amount  of 
water  is  present  in  both,  as  well  as  plenty  of  plant  food  for 
the  future  use  of  the  growing  plant.  The  secret  for  their 
preservation  is  to  prevent  them  from  losing  this  stored  up 
water,  and  drying  up. 

The  fleshy  roots  of  some  plants  and  many  of  the  bulbs  are 
hardy  and  will  not  be  killed  by  freezing.  For  this  class  of 
plants  greater  success  will  be  attained,  if  they  are  planted 
out  in  the  open  ground  during  August  and  September  and 
allowed  to  remain  out  of  doors.  The  depth  to  which  the 
bulbs  and  the  fleshy-rooted  plants  should  be  set  varies,  and 
ranges  from  4  to  8  inches  for  the  common  ones.  When 
freezing  weather  arrives  the  beds  should  be  mulched  with 
coarse  horse  manure.  The  manure  should  be  removed  as 
soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  grow  in  the  spring. 

The  treatment  of  the  fleshy-rooted  plants  that  are  not 
hardy  is  more  exact  and  is  attended  with  less  success.  Plants 
like  the  canna  which  have  thick,  fleshy  roots  are  also  filled 
with  water.  Such  roots  will  die  if  they  are  frozen.  It  is 
necessary  therefore  to  dig  them  up  and  to  store  them  over 
winter.  These  roots  must  not  only  be  kept  in  the  proper 
conditions  by  preventing  the  loss  of  water  but  they  must  also 
be  stored  in  a  cool  place  so  that  no  growth  will  take  place. 
To  succeed  in  the  storing  of  such  roots  the  storage  place  must 
not  be  too  damp  or  the  roots  will  decay,  yet  it  must  have 
sufficient  moisture  to  prevent  them  from  drying  out.  The 
varying  and  the  irregular  conditions  found  in  the  ordinary 
houses  makes  it  an  extremely  precarious  place  to  successfully 
store  fleshy-rooted  plants.  Perhaps  the  most  ideal  place  for 
the  storage  of  such  plants  would  be  in  a  cellar  that  is  built 
underground  which  could  be  held  at  a  temperature  of  about 
35°  F.  With  this  temperature  and  with  good  ventilation 
the  moisture  conditions  will  usually  be  ideal. 


WINTER  CARE  OF  BULBS  AND  ROOTS  181 

When  storing  these  plants  first  try  to  secure  the  best 
storage  facilities.  Then  dig  up  the  roots  after  the  tops  have 
been  killed  by  frost,  leaving  some  soil  attached  to  them. 
The  roots  should  be  placed  side  by  side  on  shelves  built  in  the 
storage  house.  If  the  proper  conditions  are  maintained  the 
roots  will  come  out  of  storage  in  the  spring  in  excellent  shape. 

Where  only  a  few  roots  are  kept  over  winter  usually  fair 
results  can  be  had  by  collecting  the  roots  and  packing  them 
in  sand  in  one  corner  of  the  cellar.  They  should  be  kept  as 
cool  as  possible  and  if  they  are  found  to  be  drying  out  during 
the  winter  the  sand  should  be  sprinkled  with  water. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  winter  killing  of  plants?     How  is  it  caused? 

2.  How  does  fall  preparation  of  plants  prevent  winter  killing? 

3.  Why  is  winter  protection  of  some  plants  necessary? 

4.  How  does  the  winter  care  of  the  herbaceous  plants  differ  from  that 
of  the  woody  plants? 

5.  Why  is  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  ground  injurious  to 
roots? 

6.  What  part  of  a  plant  is  called  the  cane? 

7.  In  what  two  ways  are  plants  protected  from  wind? 

8.  Describe  the  method  of  wrapping  woody  plants. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  mulching? 

10.  What  materials  are  used  for  mulching? 

11.  What  determines  the  depth  of  the  mulch? 

12.  How  does  the  mulching  of  herbaceous  plants  differ  from  that  of  woody 
plants? 

13.  Describe  the  spring  treatment  of  mulched  plants. 

14.  How  does  the  winter  care  of  bulbs  differ  from  that  of  fleshy-rooted 
plants? 

15.  Describe  the  method  of  storing  fleshy  roots  over  winter. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  STRAWBERRY. 

THE  strawberry  is  one  of  our  best  native  fruits.  It  was 
found  growing  wild  on  our  mountains  and  in  our  valleys  by 
the  earliest  settlers.  The  native  sorts  have  been  improved 
both  by  American  as  well  as  by  European  growers.  Many  of 
our  first  good  varieties  are  said  to  have  been  sent  to  America 
from  Europe,  where  they  were  first  developed  from  our  native 
plants. 

Propagation. — The  strawberry  is  propagated  by  runners. 
The  runner  is  an  off-shoot  from  the  parent  plant.  This  off- 
shoot soon  takes  root  as  its  tip  and  in  a  short  time  a  new  plant 
is  developed.  When  the  young  plant  is  large  enough  the 
connection  between  it  and  the  mother  plant  is  cut  and  the 
young  plant  is  set  in  a  new  location.  If  the  young  plant  is  not 
removed  from  the  parent,  the  runner  will  perish  as  soon  as 
the  new  plant  is  large  enough  to  nourish  itself. 

The  strawberry  should  not  be  propagated  from  seed  unless 
new  varieties  are  wanted.  The  great  variation  in  plants 
grown  from  seeds  is  not  desirable  for  a  bearing  patch,  because 
the  grower  is  sure  to  get  many  types  of  fruit,  which  will 
ripen  at  different  times  and  be  generally  inferior  in  every 
respect.  When  a  good  variety  does  appear  from  seed  it 
should  be  planted  separately  and  propagated  by  runners. 

Renewal  of  the  Bed. — The  strawberry  bed  is  rarely  ever 
profitable  after  three  years  and  it  should  then  be  renewed. 
The  renewal  of  the  bed  should  begin  soon  after  the  picking 
season  is  over.  The  old  plants  should  be  cut  off,  allowed  to 
dry,  raked  up  with  any  remaining  mulch  which  is  on  the  bed 
and  all  burned.  If  the  refuse  material  is  raked  to  the  center 
of  the  rows  and  piled  in  small  wind  rows  and  burned  on  a 
windy  day,  very  little,  if  any  damage  will  be  done  to  the 


SOIL  183 

plants.  The  old  plants  in  the  center  of  the  rows  should  now 
either  be  plowed  out  or  spaded  under,  leaving  the  young 
plants  to  make  the  new  bed  for  the  next  year.  This  method 
of  renewal  can  be  employed  once  and  sometimes  twice  on  the 
same  piece  of  ground.  However,  better  results  will  be  had  if 
the  young  plants  are  taken  from  the  old  patch  and  set  out  in 
another  location  for  the  new  bed.  The  old  bed  can  then  be 
plowed  up  and  planted  to  some  other  crop. 

Soil. — The  strawberry  has  a  wide  adaptation  to  soils.  It 
will  grow  well  on  most  any  type.  A  sandy  loam  with  a  porous 
subsoil  which  insures  good  drainage  is  perhaps  the  best  type 
to  select  when  it  is  available. 

The  soil  for  the  strawberry  should  be  well  supplied  with 
organic  matter  which  is  in  a  well  decomposed  state.  New 
lands  which  have  been  recently  cleared  of  timber  produce 
large  and  profitable  crops  of  strawberries.  Such  lands  abound 
in  leaf  mould  and  are  rich  in  organic  matter  and  in  humus. 

The  varieties  differ  considerably  in  their  soil  requirement. 
Some  are  well  adapted  to  soils  in  certain  localities,  while 
other  varieties  in  the  same  section  are  failures  and  decidedly 
unprofitable.  Certain  other  varieties  are  very  cosmopolitan 
with  regard  to  the  soil  and  enjoy  a  wide  popularity.  These 
varieties  have  given  good  satisfaction  in  many  localities, 
therefore  they  should  usually  be  selected  by  the  amateur. 

A  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting  saves 
much  future  disappointment.  The  grower  should  not  be 
satisfied  with  the  cultivation  which  is  given  to  ordinary  farm 
crops  because  additional  preparation  is  always  profitable. 
The  soil  should  be  pulverized  and  reduced  to  a  fine  state  of 
division  if  the  strawberry  is  to  succeed.  In  preparing  the 
land  plow  moderately  deep,  say  about  8  inches.  If  the  land 
is  in  grass  fall  plowing  is  desirable.  A  cultivated  crop  such  as 
corn  should  be  planted  the  first  year  to  insure  good  culti- 
vation of  the  soil.  This  procedure  will  help  eradicate  the 
white  grub  which  is  often  present  in  sod  land  and  which  is 
very  destructive  to  the  strawberry  plant. 

The  soil  should  be  retentive  of  moisture  but  not  wet. 
Where  excess  water  is  present  drainage  is  necessary.  The 
berries  draw  heavily  upon  the  soil  water  in  the  maturing  of 


184  THE  STRAWBERRY 

the  crop  and  plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil  at  ripening  time 
is  highly  advantageous  for  success  in  the  growing  of  the 
strawberry.  Many  times  artificial  watering  is  very  profit- 
able during  the  ripening  period. 

Planting. — The  strawberry  can  be  planted  either  in  the 
spring  or  in  the  fall.  Spring  planting  is  usually  more  desir- 
able because  the  ground  can  be  prepared  in  the  fall  and  is 
then  ready  for  setting  the  plants  out  early.  The  latter  part 
of  March  or  the  first  of  April  is  the  most  preferable  time  to 
reset  the  plants.  The  exact  date  must  necessarily  vary  in  the 
different  sections.  When  the  plants  are  set  in  the  spring 
they  have  the  advantage  of  a  full  season's  growth  and  become 
more  thoroughly  mature.  In  some  sections  the  planting  is 
done  later  in  the  season,  just  after  the  berries  have  been 
harvested.  This  method  is  satisfactory  if  the  soil  is  well 
prepared.  The  young  plants  are  usually  taken  from  the  old 
patch  and  transplanted  to  their  new  location.  However,  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  water  and  to  shade  the  plants  at  this 
time  of  the  year  unless  the  weather  is  cool  and  plenty  of 
moisture  is  available. 

The  plants  must  not  be  set  too  deeply.  The  crowns  should 
not  be  covered  up,  although  the  plant  should  be  set  as  deep 
as  it  is  possible  without  injuring  the  crowns.  The  plants 
are  set  with  either  a  dibble,  a  trowel,  or  a  spade.  The  roots 
should  be  spread  out  slightly  and  the  soil  pressed  firmly 
about  them.  The  watering  of  the  plants  after  setting  them 
out  will  be  of  great  value. 

System  of  Planting. — There  are  four  systems  of  planting  in 
common  use:  The  hill  system,  the  single  hedge  row  system, 
the  double  hedge  row  system  and  the  matted  row  system. 

Hill  System. — The  hill  system  is  the  growing  of  the  plants 
singly  in  rows.  Each  plant  is  allowed  to  grow  independently 
and  no  runners  are  permitted  to  form.  In  this  method  the 
entire  strength  of  the  plant  is  given  over  to  the  production  of 
fruit,  and  the  plants  produce  excellent  large  berries.  This 
way  of  planting  is  very  profitable  when  the  grower  is  catering 
to  a  fancy  market. 

The  distance  apart  the  plants  are  set  depends  upon  whether 
hand  or  horse  cultivation  is  practised.  Where  hand  culti- 


SYSTEM  OF  PLANTING 


185 


vation  is  followed  the  plants  are  set  12  to  16  inches  apart  in 
the  rows  and  the  rows  18  to  24  inches  apart.  If  horse  culti- 
vation is  used  the  rows  must  be  30  inches  apart  and  the  plants 
12  to  14  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 


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Single  Hedge  Row  System. — ^The  single  hedge  row  system 
differs  from  the  hill  system  in  that  the  runners  are  permitted 
to  grow  sufficiently  to  fill  up  the  space  between  the  original 
plants.  As  a  rule  each  mother  plant  is  allowed  to  produce  two 


186  THE  STRAWBERRY 

runners,  one  on  each  side  of  the  parent  plant.  If  more 
runners  appear  they  are  removed.  The  plants  in  the  rows 
should  be  set  from  18  to  20  inches  apart,  and  the  rows  from 
30  to  36  inches  apart. 

Double  Hedge  Row  System. — In  the  double  hedge  row 
system  the  mother  plant  is  allowed  to  develop  from  four  to 
six  plants  around  her.  Should  more  runners  appear  they  are 
removed.  The  grower  should  see  that  the  plants  are  evenly 
distributed  over  the  ground.  The  original  plants  should  be 
set  from  18  to  24  inches  in  the  rows  and  the  rows  should  be  at 
least  36  inches  apart. 


FIG.  84. — Matted  row  system.     The  plants  are  allowed  to  grow  unmolested 
until  they  completely  cover  the  ground.     (After  R.  M.  Kellogg.) 

Matted  Row  System. — This  system  of  planting  is  widely 
used.  When  the  plants  are  grown  by  this  method  they 
require  less  labor  and  usually  produce  larger  yields.  When 
growing  the  plants  by  this  system,  all  of  the  runners  are 
allowed  to  develop  and  to  form  a  dense  mat  of  plants.  Many 
growers  permit  the  runners  to  set  plants  until  the  row  is 
from  18  to  24  inches  wide,  but  this  always  produces  many 
small,  inferior  berries. 

Cultivation. — The  value  of  cultivation  is  not  fully  realized 
by  many  growers.  The  strawberry  plants  should  be  culti- 
vated frequently  and  thoroughly  from  the  time  the  berries  are 
picked  until  frost.  Newly  set  patches  must  be  well  culti- 
vated the  first  year  if  a  good  crop  is  to  be  expected  the  next 


MULCHING 


187 


year.  The  ordinary  cultivating  tools  are  used.  The  weeds 
should  be  kept  down  and  the  runners  cut  off  as  they  appear 
when  they  are  out  of  place. 

The  first  season  is  the  most  critical  time  in  the  growth  of 
the  strawberry.  Tillage  is  very  important  in  bringing  the 
plants  through  this  crisis.  The  cultivation  is  valuable  in 
keeping  a  dust  mulch  on  the  soil  and  in  preventing  the  loss 
of  water  by  evaporation. 


FIG.  85. — A  pot-grown  strawberry  plant. 

Mulching. — In  most  of  the  northern  states  and  in  many  of 
the  southern  sections  the  strawberries  should  be  mulched. 
The  best  mulching  materials  are  strawy  manure  with  very 
little  solid  matter,  clean  straw  or  hay  free  from  weed  seeds. 
Occasionally  other  mulching  materials  such  as  leaves,  pine 
needles,  marsh  hay  or  cotton-seed  hulls  are  used.  The 
mulch  should  be  applied  after  the  ground  is  frozen.  If  it  is 


188  THE  STRAWBERRY 

put  on  too  early  the  plants  often  start  into  growth  too  soon. 
Considering  all  materials,  the  clean  straw  is  perhaps  the  best 
for  mulching. 


FIG.  86. — A  well-mulched  strawborn 


FIG.  87. — A  well-graded  crate  of  strawberries  packed  in  square  pint  boxes. 
(After  Thompson,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.)          ^ 

Harvesting. — The  time  of  picking  the  strawberry  depends 
upon  the  distance  they  are  to  be  shipped.  When  they  are 
grown  for  home  consumption  or  for  the  local  market  they 


HARVESTING 


189 


should  not  be  picked  until  they  are  thoroughly  ripe,  but  not 
soft.     If  they  are  grown  for  a  distant  market  they  should  be 


FIG.  88. — Crate  of  strawberries  in  octagon  quart  boxes.     (After  Thompson, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


FIG.  89. — A  six-basket  carrier  used  for  picking  strawberries. 
Wicks,  Arkansas  Bulletin  No.  122.) 


(After  W.  H. 


picked  when  they  are  about  three-fourths  ripe.  The  berries 
should  not  be  picked  before  they  are  colored  and  they  should 
have  a  short  stem  attached  to  them. 


190 


THE  STRAWBERRY 


The  berries  should  be  picked  carefully  and  they  should 
never  be  bruised  or  crushed  in  any  way. 

Packing. — Strawberries  should  be  carefully  graded  and 
sorted  before  they  are  packed.  Each  package  should  be 


o  ^ 

«  I 


° 

.8  a 


ll 


OJ    0> 

fl 

p 

05 

I 


uniform  and  contain  berries  of  one  size.     Occasionally  the 
fruit  is  graded  in  the  field,  but  the  most  satisfactory  method 
is  to  have  all  of  the  berries  graded  and  packed  in  a  packing 
shed,  and  by  experienced  packers. 
The  berries  should  be  placed  in  the  shade  when  they  are 


VARIETIES 


191 


picked.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  placed 
in  crates  they  should  be  sent  directly 
to  the  refrigerator,  because  the  heat 
quickly  injures  the  fruit. 

The  strawberry  is  marketed  in 
many  styles  of  boxes  and  crates. 
They  vary  in  size  and  in  shape.  The 
capacity  of  the  boxes  ranges  from 
scant  pints  to  full  quarts,  but  there 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  a  standard 
full  size  quart  box.  The  American 
type  of  box  is  most  generally  used. 
The  octagon  box  is  objectionable 
because  of  its  shape  and  the  raised 
bottom.  The  boxes  are  packed  in 
crates  of  varying  sizes  and  range  from 
24  to  32  quarts.  In  some  sections  a 
larger  crate  is  sometimes  used,  but 
it  is  not  so  very  satisfactory. 

Varieties. — There  has  been  a  re- 
markable development  in  strawberries 
since  the  first  variety  gained  prom 
nence.  There  are  a  great  many 
varieties  that  can  be  grown  with  suc- 
cess in  all  localities,  and  the  grower 
should  collect  evidence  on  the  be- 
havior of  different  kinds  in  his  region 
before  determining  upon  any  special 
variety.  Some  sorts  will  grow  well 
on  one  class  of  soil  while  others  will 
be  a  failure  on  that  same  soil,  and 
only  local  experience  can  determine 
the  best  variety  for  a  given  section. 

The  grower  must  also  remember 
that  the  strawberry  is  divided  into 
two  classes  based  upon  the  kind  of 


FIG.  91.— Pistillate  or  female  and  staminate  or  male  flowers  of  the  strawberry 
plant.     (Cruickshank,  Ohio  State  University.) 


192  THE  STRAWBERRY 

flowers  that  it  produces  One  class  of  plants  is  known  as  the 
pistillate  or  imperfect  varieties  while  the  other  class  is  the 
staminate  or  the  perfect  type.  The  imperfect  varieties  have 
flowers  with  only  pistils  and  will  not  produce  fruit  unless 
fertilized  with  other  varieties  that  have  stamens,  while  the 
perfect  varieties  have  stamens  as  well  as  pistils,  and  are 
capable  of  producing  fruit  alone.  Unless  the  male  and  the 
female  parts  are  both  present  there  can  be  no  fruit.  In 
selecting  a  variety  it  is  necessary  either  to  select  a  variety 
that  has  perfect  flowers  or  to  alternate  the  rows  of  plants 
that  have  imperfect  flowers  with  those  that  have  the  perfect 
flowers.  Where  the  rows  are  alternated  the  varieties  must 
both  bloom  at  the  same  time  in  order  to  have  the  fruit  set. 
The  amateur  should  usually  confine  his  selection  to  the  perfect 
flowered  varieties.  Usually  two  or  three  varieties  are  better 
to  grow  than  only  one,  even  if  all  of  them  are  perfect  flowered 
sorts. 

The  following  list  of  varieties  comprises  a  few  of  the  most 
cosmopolitan  sorts:  Early  Varieties — August  Luther,  Ex- 
celsior, Crescent  and  Warfield.  Medium  Early  Varieties — 
Dunlap,  Glen  Mary  and  Bubach.  Late  Varieties — Gandy, 
Sample,  and  Brandywine. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   STRAWBERRY. 

The  strawberry  is  notably  free  from  disease.  It  is  rarely 
ever  necessary  to  spray  the  plants,  provided  the  proper 
cultural  methods  are  followed.  There  are,  however,  several 
diseases  which  might  become  troublesome. 

Leaf  Spot. — The  leaf  spot  is  the  most  commonly  known 
disease  of  the  strawberry.  This  disease  makes  its  appearance 
in  the  form  of  small,  discolored  spots  on  the  leaves.  These 
spots  appear  most  abundantly  at  the  flowering  period.  The 
spots  are  first  reddish  or  purplish,  but  as  they  grow  older 
the  centers  become  a  whitish  color  and  the  death  of  the 
tissue  is  the  result.  The  spots  are  scattered  irregularly  over 
the  leaves,  and  when  they  are  abundant  several  may  join 
together  to  make  one  large  spot. 

Certain  varieties  are  more  or  less  free  from  this  disease, 


INSECTS  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY  193 

while  others  are  very  susceptible  to  it.  The  best  means  of 
control  is  to  select  disease  resistant  varieties  so  far  as  pos- 
sible. Only  the  most  healthy  plants  should  be  set  and  all 
spotted  leaves  should  be  pinched  off.  A  thorough  spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  given  before  the  flowers 
open.  If  the  disease  becomes  quite  serious  some  relief  may 
be  had  by  mowing  off  the  leaves  and  burning  over  the  bed, 
which  should  be  done  just  after  the  fruiting  season. 

Mildew. — The  mildew  of  the  strawberry  is  similar  to  that 
on  any  other  plant.  The  disease  covers  the  berries  and  the 
leaves  with  a  whitish  growth  of  webby  material.  It  usually 
causes  the  leaves  to  curl  up  and  die.  Spraying  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  or  dusting  the  plants  with  flowers  of  sulphur 
will  usually  control  the  mildew. 

INSECTS   OF   THE   STRAWBERRY. 

Since  the  strawberry  plants  are  grown  for  two  or  three 
years  on  the  same  land,  are  low  growing,  and  set  closely  in 
rows,  the  control  of  the  insects  is  based  more  particularly 
upon  rotation  of  the  crops,  clean  culture,  fall  plowing  and 
similar  practices  rather  than  on  spraying.  The  one  crop 
method  of  producing  strawberries  greatly  simplifies  the 
insect  problem.  There  are  a  number  of  insects  that  feed 
upon  the  different  parts  of  the  strawberry  plant,  but  many  of 
them  never  become  serious  and  little  attention  is  ever  paid 
to  them. 

Strawberry  Leaf  Roller. — The  leaf  roller  is  perhaps  the  most 
serious  insect  pest.  It  is  a  small  greenish-brown  caterpillar 
which  folds  two  halves  of  the  leaf  together  and  feeds  within 
the  enclosed  leaf.  When  the  insects  are  abundant  the  foliage 
is  destroyed,  the  fruit  fails  to  mature  and  the  plant  is  greatly 
weakened. 

The  leaf  roller  can  usually  be  controlled  by  spraying  the 
plants  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  50 
gallons  of  water.  The  application  of  the  insecticide  must  be 
timely  and  applied  within  a  week  after  the  first  appearance 
of  the  moths  or  just  before  the  young  caterpillars  begin  to 
fold  the  leaves. 
13 


194  THE  STRAWBERRY 

Strawberry  Weevil. — In  many  parts  of  the  country  the 
weevil  when  abundant  destroys  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  of 
the  crop  each  year.  The  insect  is  intermittent  in  its  attack 
and  will  be  numerous  for  several  years  then  suddenly  disap- 
pear and  will  cause  no  more  trouble  for  some  time,  finally 
reappearing  again. 

The  adult  insects  hibernate  over  winter  under  rubbish 
near  the  strawberry  bed.  In  the  spring  they  appear  and  after 
feeding  for  a  short  time  lay  their  eggs  in  the  unopened  flower 
buds.  In  about  a  week  the  little  grubs  hatch  and  begin  at 
once  to  eat  the  buds  thus  destroying  them  entirely.  When 
the  insects  are  numerous  they  often  feed  upon  the  foliage. 

The  best  means  of  control  for  this  insect  is  by  practising 
clean  culture. 

In  addition  to  the  insects  mentioned  there  are  several 
more,  but  they  rarely  ever  become  troublesome. 

Nematodes. — Nematodes  are  small  hair-like  worms  found 
in  the  soil.  They  are  about  TV  to  ^V  °f  an  incn  long.  They 
are  sometimes  called  eelworms  and  gall-worms.  Nematodes 
produce  knot-like  enlargements  on  the  roots  at  the  points  of 
infestation.  They  occur  rather  widely  in  soils  where  the 
climate  is  so  mild  throughout  the  year  that  the  ground 
rarely  freezes  more  than  a  very  few  inches  deep. 

Strawberry  plants  are  very  susceptible  to  this  parasite, 
and  heavy  losses  occur  in  certain  localities. 

The  symptoms  of  infestation  are  seen  when  the  foliage 
assumes  an  unhealthy  appearance,  and  may  wilt  in  hot 
weather,  finally  dying.  In  less  severe  cases  the  plants  refuse 
to  bear  and  soon  become  of  no  value. 

The  only  remedy  is  to  free  the  soil  of  this  parasite.  In 
cold  sections,  fall  plowing,  that  will  expose  them  to  severe 
freezing  is  effective.  In  other  sections  they  must  be  starved 
out  by  planting  crops  that  are  either  immune  or  highly 
resistant  to  them.  A  few  crops  used  for  this  purpose  are, 
corn,  oats,  rye,  millet,  wheat,  peanuts  and  several  varieties 
of  cowpeas.  It  usually  requires  from  two  to  three  years  to 
rid  a  soil  of  this  pest. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY  195 


SPRAYING  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  STRAWBERRY. 

Number  of  spray.  Time  to  spray.  Spray  Materials. 

First    ....      When  growth  begins        4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Second      .      .      .      After  picking  of  fruit       4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Also  cut  and  burn  all 
leaves  on  some  windy 
day  before  spraying. 

At  the  first  appearance  of  the  leaf  roller  spray  with  2 
pounds  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water.  This  spray 
should  be  repeated  every  week  if  necessary  until  the  fruit  is 
about  half-grown. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Where  were  the  first  good  varieties  of  strawberries  developed?     Why? 

2.  Why  should  the  strawberry  be  propagated  by  runners  instead  of  seed? 

3.  Why   is  an  old  strawberry  bed  unprofitable?     What  is- meant  by 
renewal? 

4.  Is  the  soil  for  the  strawberry  important?     What  determines  the  best 
type  of  soil  to  select? 

5.  When  is  the  best  time  to  plant  the  strawberry?     Why? 

6.  What  regulates  the  depth  to  which  a  plant  can  be  set? 

7.  Name  the  four  systems  of  planting  the  strawberry. 

8.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  single  and  the  double  hedge  row 
system;  the  hill  and  the  matted  row  system? 

9.  What  system  is  the  most  economical?     Why? 

10.  When  should  the  cultivation  of  the  strawberry  begin? 

11.  What  is  the  value  of  mulching  a  strawberry  bed  and  when  should  the 
mulch  be  placed  on  the  plants? 

12.  What  determines  the  selection  of  varieties  of  strawberries? 

1 3.  Is  the  strawberry  seriously  affected  with  insects  and  diseases? 

14.  How  does  the  leaf  spot  differ  from  the  mildew?     What  is  the  remedy 
for  each? 

15.  What  is  one  of  the  best  means  for  controlling  the  insects  affecting 
the  strawberry? 

16.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  strawberry. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
BUSH  FRUITS. 

THE  currant  and  the  gooseberry  are  the  two  most  impor- 
tant bush  fruits.  The  gooseberry  is  not  so  well  known  as 
the  currant,  but  it  deserves  more  attention  from  the  Ameri- 
can grower.  In  England  the  reverse  is  true  and  the  goose- 
berry is  very  widely  planted,  and  many  varieties  with  very 
large  fruit  have  been  developed.  The  currant  and  the 
gooseberry  are  called  bush  fruits  because  the  plants  are 
low  growing  and  are  inclined  to  be  bushy.  The  bush  fruits 
should  find  a  place  in  every  garden  because  of  their  relia- 
bility. They  rarely  ever  fail  and  are  consistent  bearers. 
These  fruits  are  highly  prized  by  many  people  for  the  mak- 
ing of  jellies  and  jams.  The  bush  fruits  take  up  much  less 
space  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  fruit  produced  than 
almost  any  other  fruit.  They  are  easily  grown,  are  compact 
in  habit  and  can  be  set  in  places  too  small  for  tree  fruits. 
The  currant  and  the  gooseberry  make  a  fitting  border 
around  the  garden.  They  can  be  planted  so  as  to  screen 
some  objectionable  fence  and  at  the  same  time  produce  an 
abundance  of  fresh  fruit.  The  currant  and  the  gooseberry 
are  the  hardiest  of  our  common  fruits,  and  they  are  very 
easy  to  protect  in  an  unfavorable  climate.  They  are  of 
easy  culture. 

Currant. — There  are  two  common  types  of  the  currant, 
namely,  the  red  and  the  black  fruited  sorts.  These  types 
are  based  upon  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  the  color  of  the 
fruit. 

The  red  currant  is  supposed  to  have  its  origin  in  northern 
Europe  and  in  the  northern  part  of  America.  The  origin  of 
this  plant  is  accountable  for  its  hardiness.  This  species  has 
both  red  and  white  colored  fruits.  The  red  fruited  varieties 
are  the  most  popular,  although  the  white  currants  are  grown 
in  some  sections. 


PROPAGATION  197 

The  black  currant  commonly  grown  in  the  garden  has 
its  origin  in  northern  Europe.  The  fruit  as  well  as  the  plant 
of  this  species  has  a  peculiar  odor  which  is  objectionable  to 
some  people.  The  demand  for  the  fruit  of  the  black  cur- 
rant is  not  as  great  as  that  of  the  red,  but  in  some  markets 
it  is  prized  highly  and  brings  a  good  price. 

Gooseberry. — The  gooseberry  is  closely  related  to  the  cur- 
rant. It  is  very  hardy  and  very  productive.  There  are 
two  classes  of  gooseberries  under  cultivation,  namely,  the 
American  and  the  European  types.  The  color  of  the  culti- 
vated sorts  ranges  from  a  pale  green  to  a  deep  red  when 
the  fruit  is  ripe. 

The  cultivated  American  gooseberry  has  been  developed 
from  one  of  our  native  species.  Besides  the  cultivated 
sorts  there  are  several  wild  varieties.  The  fruit  of  the 
wild  sort  is  used  in  communities  where  the  plant  is  found 
growing.  The  greatest  objection  to  the  fruit  of  the  wild 
plants  is  the  large  number  of  sharp  prickles  found  on  it. 

The  cultivated  European  gooseberries  have  their  origin 
in  Europe.  These  gooseberries  are  not  grown  to  any  extent 
in  America,  because  the  plants  are  very  susceptible  to  the 
mildew.  The  gooseberry,  however,  is  a  more  popular  fruit 
in  Europe  than  it  is  in  America,  and  many  of  the  English 
gooseberries  are  very  large,  some  specimens  weighing  from 
3  to  5  ounces. 

Propagation. — The  bush  fruits  are  propagated  by  hard- 
wood cuttings,  by  layers  and  by  division  of  the  plant. 
While  the  plants  can  be  reproduced  from  seed  this  practice 
is  never  recommended,  because  the  plants  that  are  grown 
from  seed  are  never  true  to  name  or  to  type.  If  a  new 
variety  is  wanted,  however,  seed  must  be  planted,  but  this 
is  a  very  uncertain  undertaking,  especially  for  the  amateur. 

The  currant  is  more  generally  propagated  by  hard-wood 
cuttings.  The  cuttings  are  taken  from  wood  of  the  previous 
summer's  growth  and  cut  into  pieces  about  8  inches  in  length. 
The  cut  should  be  smooth  and  just  below  a  bud.  The 
end  of  the  new  growth  should  be  removed  because  it  is 
usually  too  immature  to  produce  good  cuttings.  The  cut- 
tings should  be  made  in  the  fall,  usually  during  the  latter  part 


198  BUSH  FRUITS 

of  September  and  in  October.  A  convenient  number  should 
be  tied  in  a  bunch  and  placed  in  damp  sand  in  a  cool  cellar 
to  callous  over.  The  cuttings  can  be  stored  in  the  open 
ground  if  the  ground  in  which  they  are  stored  does  not  freeze. 
The  cuttings  are  not  always  taken  in  the  fall.  Occasionally 
they  are  cut  in  the  spring  and  planted  at  once  in  the  nursery 
row,  but  this  practice  usually  does  not  produce  as  good 
plants  as  the  stored  and  calloused  cuttings  do. 

The  gooseberry  is  not  propagated  as  easily  from  hard- 
wood cuttings  as  the  currant.  The  varieties,  however, 
which  have  small,  slender  wood  can  scarcely  be  propagated 
by  stem  cuttings.  For  this  reason  the  gooseberry  is  usually 
propagated  by  layering.  Layering  is  normally  performed 
during  the  month  of  June.  If  the  branches  are  covered  with 
soil  at  this  time,  usually  each  twig  will  be  found  to  be  rooted 
by  autumn.  The  rooted  twigs  should  be  taken  up  early  in 
the  spring,  cut  apart  and  planted  out  in  the  nursery  row. 
After  they  are  set  in  the  nursery  they  are  handled  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  hard-wood  cuttings. 

For  the  home  garden  where  several  additional  plants  are 
wanted,  the  parent  plant  can  oftentimes  be  taken  up  in  the 
fall  and  separated  into  two  or  more  parts  and  each  piece 
set  in  a  new  location. 

Soil. — The  currant  and  the  gooseberry  will  grow  in  almost 
any  soil.  The  soil  should  have  a  good  depth  and  be  supplied 
with  plant  food.  A  well-drained,  sandy  loam  with  plenty 
of  humus  will  give  excellent  results.  A  clay  loam  that  is 
properly  handled  will  also  grow  good  currants  and  excellent 
gooseberries.  The  bush  fruits  do  their  best  on  high  lands 
and  are  almost  worthless  on  low  land.  A  northern  slope  is 
preferred  because  it  is  cool  and  the  bush  fruits  thrive  under 
cool  conditions.  The  currants  and  the  gooseberries  do 
well  when  they  are  planted  on  the  north  side  of  a  building 
or  between  the  rows  in  an  orchard,  because  they  are  par- 
tially shaded.  In  the  crowded  city  and  in  the  suburban 
garden  these  fruits  usually  do  better  than  almost  any  other 
fruit,  especially  if  the  bushes  are  properly  pruned  and  well 
thinned  out.  The  gooseberries  do  the  best  on  a  fairly 
stiff  clay  while  the  currants  seem  to  prefer  the  lighter  soil 


PLANTING  199 

for  their  best  development.  In  certain  regions  where  the 
soil  gets  very  hot  and  dry  during  the  summer,  it  is  often 
advisable  to  mulch  the  ground  with  coarse  litter  or  straw  in 
order  to  keep  the  temperature  down  and  to  hold  the  moisture 
in  the  soil. 

The  bush  fruits  are  heavy  feeders  and  they  should  be 
supplied  with  a  large  amount  of  plant  food.  The  plant 
food  can  be  furnished  by  either  cultivating  the  soil  or  by 
mulching  it  heavily  with  good  horse  manure.  The  mulch 
in  addition  to  adding  plant  food  serves  to  keep  the  weeds 
down. 

Cultivation. — In  the  majority  of  fruit  gardens,  cultivation 
is  preferable.  However,  in  certain  sections  particularly  in 
the  middle  west  the  bush  fruits  seem  to  thrive  best  without 
cultivation,  and  with  a  mulch.  The  tillage  when  practical 
should  be  shallow  because  the  currant  and  the  gooseberry 
are  shallow-rooted  plants.  The  plants  when  grown  under  a 
mulch  do  comparatively  well  without  tillage,  and  the  bush 
fruits  can  be  grown  along  the  borders  of  the  garden  and  in 
other  out-of-the-way  places.  However,  more  satisfactory 
results  are  usually  obtained  if  a  certain  amount  of  tillage  is 
given  each  year.  It  should  be  stopped  soon  enough  so  the 
plant  can  mature  its  wood  before  winter.  Without  a  doubt 
some  cover  crop  such  as  crimson  clover  would  be  valuable, 
especially  on  a  commercial  plantation,  if  cultivation  is  prac- 
tised. The  cover  crop,  if  it  is  adopted,  should  be  planted 
about  the  same  time  as  recommended  for  the  other  fruits, 
namely,  the  latter  part  of  July  or  the  first  part  of  August. 

Planting. — The  bush  fruits  may  be  planted  in  the  fall  or 
in  the  spring.  In  many  sections,  except  the  extreme  north, 
fall  planting  is  preferable.  Where  the  weather  conditions 
are  favorable  and  the  soil  is  well  prepared  there  seems  to 
be  little  difference  between  fall  and  spring  planting.  Good 
results  have  been  secured  with  both  methods  where  the  con- 
ditions were  suitable.  The  advocates  of  fall  planting  claim 
that  since  the  growth  of  these  plants  starts  early  in  the 
spring,  there  is  more  of  a  check  to  the  growth  of  a  plant  if 
it  is  set  in  the  spring  than  if  it  is  transplanted  in  the  fall. 
This  assumption  is  very  sound  in  many  instances,  because 


200  BUSH  FRUITS 

the  wood  ripens  up  early  in  the  autumn,  therefore  fall  plant- 
ing is  preferred  by  most  growers. 

The  distance  to  plant  the  bush  fruit  is  determined  by 
the  method  of  cultivation.  In  most  cases  the  plants  are 
set  4  feet  apart  in  the  rows  and  the  rows  6  feet  apart.  These 
distances  permit  of  horse  cultivation  and  during  the  first 
few  years  the  plants  can  be  cultivated  in  both  directions. 
As  the  plants  grow  larger  they  are  cultivated  only  in  one 
direction.  When  the  plants  are  set  in  the  fruit  garden 
and  where  only  a  few  are  grown,  they  can  be  planted  closer 
together.  The  usual  distance  under  these  conditions  is 
4  feet  apart  each  way. 

The  plants  can  be  either  one  or  two  years  old  when  they 
are  set  in  their  permanent  places,  but  the  two-year-old  plants 
are  usually  preferred.  The  plants  that  are  propagated  by 
cuttings  or  by  layers  give  the  most  satisfactory  results  for 
a  permanent  patch. 

Pruning. — The  currant  and  the  gooseberry  require  similar 
methods  of  pruning.  They  are  much  alike  in  their  habits 
of  growth  and  the  pruning  of  each  plant  is  much  the  same. 
Pruning  should  be  done  during  the  dormant  period. 

When  starting  the  young  plant  the  first  year  it  should 
be  pruned  to  a  single  whip  containing  six  or  seven  good  buds. 
The  second  year  select  five  or  six  good  branches  to  form 
the  framework  of  the  bush.  Prune  any  irregular  branches 
back  to  make  a  uniform  top. 

When  the  plant  comes  into  bearing,  Jess  pruning  is  neces- 
sary, but  a  certain  amount  should  be  given  regularly  every 
year.  The  wood  that  is  two  or  three  years  old  produces  the 
greatest  quantity  and  the  most  superior  fruit.  The  older 
branches  produce  fruit,  but  the  quantity  is  less  and  the 
quality  is  inferior.  The  aim,  then,  of  the  pruner  should  be 
to  remove  all  branches  over  three  years  of  age,  and  to  thin 
out  the  bush  in  order  to  admit  the  sunlight  and  to  permit 
good  circulation  of  air.  Head  in  all  those  branches  that 
make  a  long  or  an  irregular  growth. 

Harvesting. — The  bush  fruits  usually  give  a  good  harvest. 
A  strong,  healthy  currant  plant  should  yield  from  three  to 
six  pounds  of  high-grade  fruit,  and  many  plants  greatly 


HARVESTING 


201 


if,/    7 


FIG.  92. — •Gooseberry  before  pruning.     (West  Virginia  Agricultural  Bulletin 

No.  149.) 


f 


FIG.  93. — Gooseberry  after  pruning.     (West  Virginia  Agricultural  Bulletin 

No.  149.) 


202  BUSH  FRUITS 

exceed  this  yield.  The  currants  should  be  picked  when 
they  are  dry.  They  can  hang  on  the  vines  for  several  weeks 
after  they  are  ripe  and  improve  in  quality  all  of  the  time. 
They  should  be  picked  by  pinching  or  cutting  off  the  clusters. 
The  berries  should  not  be  pulled  from  the  bunches. 

The  gooseberry  usually  outyields  the  currant.  The  fruit 
of  the  gooseberries  like  the  currants  can  remain  on  the 
bushes  after  it  is  ripe  and  improve  in  quality. 

The  greatest  disadvantage  to  the  harvesting  of  the  goose- 
berry is  the  thorns.  However,  the  thorns  can  largely  be 
avoided  if  the  branches  are  lifted  up  with  one  hand  and  the 
berries  picked  from  the  under  side  with  the  other  hand. 
The  thornless  varieties  have  not  as  yet  proved  to  be  of  any 
great  value. 

The  currants  and  the  gooseberries  are  long-lived.  They 
will  bear  fruit  for  many  years,  but  it  is  better  to  set  out 
new  plants  every  eight  or  ten  years.  As  the  bushes  get 
older  the  fruit  becomes  smaller  and  gets  poorer  in  quality. 
The  plants  are  propagated  so  easily  and  they  cost  so  little 
that  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  ever  profitable  to  attempt 
to  rejuvenate  a  neglected  patch.  The  plants  come  into 
bearing  very  early  and  will  perhaps  bear  fruit  as  soon  if 
not  sooner  than  rejuvenated  plants  "and  the  quality  will 
be  superior. 

Varieties. — There  are  only  a  few  well-defined  American 
varieties  of  the  bush  fruits  but  there  are  many  European 
types.  The  lack  of  interest,  until  very  recently,  in  the  com- 
mercial cultivation  of  these  fruits,  probably  accounts  for  the 
scarcity  of  the  varieties  as  compared  with  some  of  our  other 
fruits.  In  Europe  the  bush  fruits  are  cultivated  extensively 
and  there  are  many  good  varieties. 

The  most  popular  varieties  of  the  red  currants  are  the 
Cherry,  Fray,  Perfection,  Versaillaise  and  the  Victoria.  In 
certain  regions  other  varieties  are  grown,  but  they  are  not 
so  widely  planted.  The  Wilder  is  one  of  the  newer  varieties 
and  is  gaining  in  popularity  each  year. 

The  white  varieties  of  currants  should  be  more  generally 
planted,  especially  in  the  home  garden.  They  are  consid- 
ered equally  good  in  quality  and  they  are  prolific  bearers. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BUSH  FRUITS  203 

The  White  Grape  and  the  White  Imperial  are  the  most 
common  varieties. 

The  black  European  currants  are  not  grown  to  any  extent 
in  this  country..  The  disagreeable  odor  of  the  plant  and  the 
peculiar  flavor  of  the  fruit  are  objectionable  to  many  people. 
This  currant  has  some  advantages  and  a  few  plants  should 
be  grown.  The  Black  Naples  is  the  most  widely  planted 
variety. 

The  important  American  varieties  of  gooseberries  are  even 
less  in  number  than  the  currants.  The  Downing,  the  Pearl, 
and  the  Houghton  are  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  the 
American  sorts.  These  varieties  are  thrifty  growers,  very 
productive  and  are  comparatively  free  from  disease.  They 
are  excellent  for  cooking  and  for  making  jelly,  but  they 
are  not  equal  in  quality  to  the  English  varieties  for  eating 
out  of  the  hand.  The  English  varieties  have  been  devel- 
oped to  a  much  greater  degree  than  the  American  types. 
There  are  over  one  thousand  well-developed  English  sorts 
of  which  some  are  suited  to  the  American  gardens.  Of  the 
English  types  the  Columbus,  Chataqua,  Industry  and  the 
Triumph  are  best  suited  to  the  American  garden.  The 
English  types  are  usually  less  vigorous  and  less  productive 
than  the  native  varieties. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BUSH  FRUITS. 

The  diseases  and  the  insects  affecting  the  bush  fruits 
are  similar,  and  many  that  are  found  on  the  one  plant  are 
also  common  on  the  other. 

Leaf  Spot. — The  leaf  spot  is  a  disease  that  affects  the 
leaves,  and  it  is  found  on  both  the  currant  and  the  goose- 
berry. It  is  easily  recognized  because  of  the  large  well- 
defined  spots,  with  pale  centers,  which  are  surrounded  by 
a  brownish  border.  Spraying  with  the  standard  4-4-50 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  effective  in  controlling  this  disease. 
The  spraying  should  begin  just  as  the  buds  are  opening,  and 
repeated  at  intervals  of  two  weeks  until  four  or  five  sprays 
have  been  given. 


204  BUSH  FRUITS 

Anthracnose. — The  anthracnose  attacks  all  parts  of  the 
currant  and  the  gooseberry.  The  anthracnose  only  becomes 
serious  at  certain  times,  but  cases  are  reported  where  great 
damage  has  resulted  from  this  trouble.  The  first  symptom 
of  this  disease  is  the  appearance  of  small  dark  brown  spots 
on  the  leaves.  These  spots  later  change  to  yellow  and  the 
leaves  fall  off.  Upon  the  canes,  the  stems,  and  the  fruit, 
the  disease  appears  as  small  sunken  spots.  Spraying  with 
the  standard  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  will  control  this 
disease.  The  first  spraying  should  be  given  just  as  the  buds 
begin  to  swell  in  the  spring.  After  the  first  spray  succes- 
sive sprayings  should  be  given  every  two  weeks  until  four  or 
five  have  been  applied. 

Powdery  Mildew. — The  powdery  mildew  is  found  growing 
on  both  the  currant  and  the  gooseberry.  This  disease 
appears  on  all  parts  of  the  plant.  The  affected  parts  look 
as  though  they  had  been  sprinkled  with  flour  or  some  other 
white  material.  The  powdery  mildew,  like  all  other  mildews, 
is  a  superficial  fungus,  and  upon  close  examination  small 
white  threads  matted  in  a  dense  mass  over  the  affected  parts 
will  be  found.  If  the  disease  is  allowed  to  progress  with- 
out any  restraint,  the  berries  become  deformed,  irregular 
and  of  poor  quality.  They  often  crack  open  and  later  rot. 
The  damage  caused  by  this  disease  is  considerable,  and  it 
retards  the  cultivation  of  these  fruits  in  many  sections. 
According  to  the  work  done  at  the  Geneva  Experiment 
Station  the  spraying  with  potassium  sulphide  at  the  rate  of 
1  ounce  to  2  gallons  of  water  is  effective  in  reducing  the 
loss  due  to  this  disease.  The  spraying  should  begin  just  as 
the  buds  are  opening  and  continued  at  intervals  of  two  weeks 
until  seven  or  eight  sprays  have  been  given. 

» 

INSECTS  OF  THE  BUSH  FRUITS. 

Currant  Worms. — The  worms  that  are  found  eating  the 
foliage  of  the  currants  and  the  gooseberries  include  several 
species.  The  native  species  as  well  as  the  imported  worms 
are  found  preying  upon  these  plants.  The  injury  due  to 
these  insects  is  somewhat  distinct  for  the  various  species, 


INSECTS  OF  THE  BUSH  FRUITS  205 

although  all  of  them  eat  the  leaves  and  cause  considerable 
damage.  The  adults  of  some  of  the  so-called  currant  worms 
are  moths  and  some  are  flies,  but  in  all  cases  it  is  the  larvae 
of  the  species  attacking  the  plant  that  eat  the  foliage.  The 
habits  and  the  life  histories  of  the  various  currant  worms 
differ,  but  in  general  all  of  them  can  be  controlled  by  the 
same  methods. 

If  the  plants  are  sprayed  with  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead 
to  50  gallons  of  water,  these  insects  can  be  easily  killed.  If 
arsenate  of  lead  is  not  available,  J  pound  of  Paris  green  to 
50  gallons  of  water  is  effective  in  destroying  the  worms. 
The  spraying  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  insects  are  seen. 
Usually  one  spraying  is  sufficient,  although  in  some  cases 
additional  sprayings  are  necessary.  If  the  insects  attack  the 
plants  late  in  the  season,  when  the  fruit  is  reaching  maturity, 
spray  them  with  fresh  hellebore  or  fresh  pyrethrum  at  the 
rate  of  4  ounces  to  2  gallons  of  water.  Dusting  the  plants 
with  the  dry  material  diluted,  1  pound  of  the  poison  to  5 
pounds  of  air-slaked  lime  or  flour,  is  also  good.  Where  the 
pyrethrum  or  the  hellebore  is  used,  there  is  no  danger  from 
poisoning  by  the  eating  of  the  fruit. 

Aphis. — The  aphis  is  known  as  the  plant  louse.  It  is 
frequently  found  on  the  currant,  and  occasionally  on  the 
gooseberry.  It  is  yellowish  green  in  color  and  is  usually 
found  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The  plant  lice  usually 
become  abundant  during  the  latter  part  of  the  spring,  and 
they  often  cover  the  entire  under  surface  of  the  leaves, 
causing  them  to  curl  up.  The  younger  leaves  near  the  tips 
of  the  branch  are  the  ones  which  are  most  often  attacked. 

The  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  with  Black  Leaf 
40  will  control  this  insect.  The  spraying  to  be  effective 
must  be  done  with  great  care  and  the  spray  material  must 
come  in  contact  with  every  insect.  This  is  often  difficult, 
since  the  insects  are  in  the  curled  leaves,  and  hard  to  reach. 
The  spray  must  necessarily  be  directed  upward  so  as  to  reach 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

Fruit  Worms. — The  currant  and  the  gooseberry  are  subject 
to  attack  by  certain  insects  that  bore  into  their  fruit.  Ordi- 
narily these  insects  are  not  serious^  but  occasionally  the 


206  BUSH  FRUITS 

entire  crop  is  damaged  by  them.  The  gooseberry  fruit 
worm  is  perhaps  the  most  serious  and  is  the  larva  of  a  small 
grayish  moth.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  on  the  fruit  and, 
after  hatching,  the  larvae  enter  the  fruit  and  feed  on  the  pulp. 
Occasionally  one  worm  will  enter  several  berries  and  join 
all  of  them  by  a  web.  In  the  small  home  garden  hand 
picking  is  perhaps  as  effective  a  remedy  as  can  be  suggested. 
This  is  not  practical  on  a  large  scale,  and  some  other  method 
still  remains  to  be  worked  out. 


SPKAYING  OUTLINE   FOR  THE   CURRANTS  AND  THE 
GOOSBERRIES. 

Number 

of  spray.  Time  to  spray.  Spray  materials. 

First  Before  buds  swell  in  spring  Commercial  lime  sulphur  di- 

luted 1  gallon  to  8  gallons 
of  water. 

Second         Just  as  leaves  are  expanding  Commercial   lime   sulphur,    1 

gallon  to  35  gallons  of  water 
or  4-4-50  Bordeaux  plus  2 
pounds  arsenate  of  lead  to 
50  gallons  of  spray. 

Third  When  fruit  is  one-fourth  grown        Same  as  second. 

Fourth          Near  ripening  season  if  worms         Fresh  hellebore  or  pyrethrum, 
are  troublesome  on  the  fruit  4   ounces   to    2    gallons   of 

water,  or  dusted  on  at  the 
rate  of  1  pound  to  5  pounds 
of  flour  or  air-slaked  lime. 

If  the  aphis  or  plant  louse  appears,  spray  the  plants  with 
Black  Leaf  40  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to  500  parts  of  water. 
Any  wilted  foliage  should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed  because 
this  usually  indicates  the  borer. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  bush  fruits  and  tell  why  they  are  so  called. 

2.  Differentiate  between  the  several  kinds  of  currants. 

3.  How  does  the  currant  differ  from  the  gooseberry? 

4.  Discuss  the  propagation  of  the  bush  fruits. 

5.  Why  is  it  more  desirable  to  propagate  the  bush  fruits   by  cuttings 
instead  of  by  seed? 

6.  Why  should  the  gooseberry  be  propagated  by  layering  instead  of  by 
cuttings? 

7.  What  soil  is  preferable  for  the  currant  and  the  gooseberry? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  207 

8.  When  is  it  profitable  to  cultivate  and  to  mulch  the  bush  fruits? 

9.  Why  is  cultivation  to  be  preferred  over  mulching? 

10.  What  are  the  proper  distances  to  plant  the  bush  fruits? 

11.  What  determines  the  distance  the  plants  are  set? 

12.  Discuss  the  harvesting  of  the  bush  fruits. 

13.  Why  should  the  plantation  be  renewed  every  ten  to  twelve  years? 

14.  Discuss  the  varieties  and  name,  the  most  important  ones. 

15.  Discuss  the  insects  and  the  plant  diseases  that  attack  the  plants. 

16.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  bush  fruits. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE  BRAMBLES. 

THE  brambles  include  the  blackberry,  the  dewberry,  the 
red  raspberry,  the  black  raspberry  and  the  loganberry. 
The  blackberry  and  the  raspberry  are  the  most  important 
brambles,  and  these  are  found  growing  in  many  sections  of 
the  country.  They  are  both  commercially  profitable  over  a 
large  area.  The  dewberry  is  more  limited  in  its  growth 
than  either  the  blackberry  or  the  raspberry.  It  is  grown 
in  many  places,  however,  but  it  does  not  rank  very  high 
as  a  commercial  fruit.  The  loganberry  is  a  new  bramble. 
It  has  come  into  prominence  very  recently.  The  area  over 
which  it  can  be  grown  is  somewhat  limited.  The  logan- 
berry reaches  its  highest  development  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  very  important  fruit  in 
Washington  and  Oregon  and  it  is  shipped  to  many  parts 
of  the  country  from  that  region. 

The  brambles  are  special  favorites  of  most  growers  because 
they  give  quick  returns.  They  are  easily  grown  and  the 
yields  are  usually  large.  Some  one  of  the  brambles  should 
find  a  place  in  either  the  small  suburban  home  garden  or 
the  farm  garden.  Where  the  garden  is  large  enough,  a  few 
plants  of  each  bramble  should  be  grown. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country  the  brambles,  and  espe- 
cially the  blackberry,  raspberry  and  dewberry,  grow  wild. 
These  wild  sorts  are  good  but  they  are  usually  inferior  to 
the  cultivated  varieties.  Whenever  brambles  are  desired 
for  the  garden  it  is  always  well  to  select  those  cultivated 
varieties  that  have  proved  to  be  profitable.  It  is  rarely 
ever  satisfactory  to  collect  the  wild  sorts  for  the  garden. 
The  fully  ripened  fruit  of  the  cultivated  sorts  is  much 
superior  in  quality  to  that  of  the  wild  sorts.  The  habit  of 
growth  of  the  cultivated  plants  surpasses  the  wild  varieties 


RASPBERRY  209 

and  there  is  always  a  loss  when  the  wild  plants  are  grown 
in  place  of  some  of  the  cultivated  and  the  named  varieties. 

Blackberry  and  Dewberry. — The  fruit  of  the  blackberry 
and  the  dewberry  are  similar,  but  the  growth  of  the  plants 
is  different.  The  dewberry  is  not  as  important  as  the  black- 
berry. It  claims  admission  into  the  garden  principally 
because  it  ripens  its  fruit  earlier,  and  this  lengthens  the 
blackberry  season.  Another  advantage  claimed  for  the  dew- 
berry is  that  it  is  a  trailing  plant  and  it  can  be  more  easily 
mulched  and  protected  in  severe  climates.  The  dewberry 
is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  trailing  blackberry. 

The  cultivation  of  the  blackberry  began  about  1850 
and  it  has  gradually  spread  to  many  regions  since  that  date. 
The  general  culture  of  the  blackberry  has  probably  been 
delayed  because  of  the  many  wild  forms  which  are  abundant 
in  nearly  every  section  of  the  country.  The  superiority 
of  the  cultivated  varieties  with  regard  to  the  size  and  the 
quality  of  the  berries  has  greatly  increased  the  commercial 
plantings.  As  the  public  becomes  better  educated  to  the 
value  of  the  cultivated  varieties  of  blackberries  the  industry 
is  bound  to  increase  more  rapidly. 

Raspberry. — There  are  three  kinds  of  raspberries.  This 
division  is  based  on  the  color  of  the  fruit,  and  we  have  the 
red  raspberry,  the  black  raspberry,  and  the  yellow  or  light- 
colored  raspberry.  The  red  raspberry  and  the  black  rasp- 
berry are  the  types  which  are  most  often  grown.  The 
yellow  raspberry  is  cultivated  only  to  a  limited  extent  and 
more  as  a  novelty  than  as  a  staple  variety. 

The  origin  of  the  raspberry  is  somewhat  uncertain.  There 
seems  to  be,  however,  some  varieties  of  European  and  some 
of  American  origin. 

The  red  raspberry  group  includes  not  only  the  native 
red  raspberry  but  the  European  red  varieties  as  well.  This 
group  also  embraces  an  intermediate  plant  that  bears  a 
purple  fruit  and  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  purple-cane 
raspberry.  The  yellow-fruited  raspberry  is  also  included 
in  the  red  group.  The  red  raspberry  has  a  more  slender 
and  a  more  open  habit  of  growth  than  the  black  raspberry. 

The  canes  are  often  stiff  and  bear  stiff  prickles.    The  red 
14 


THE  BRAMBLES 


FIG.  94.— Black  raspberry  before  pruning.     (West  Virginia  Agricultural  Bull . 

No.  149.) 


m 


•*v     *wf 

M> 

*%$^'~$Z&&m&.  i     * 


FIG   95.— Black  raspberry  after  pruning.     (West  Virginia  Agricultural  Bull. 

No.  149.) 


PROPAGATION  211 

raspberry  is  somewhat  more  hardy  than  the  black  rasp- 
berry and  it  can  be  grown  considerably  farther  north. 

The  black  raspberry  is  distinct  from  the  red  raspberry 
both  in  its  habit  of  growth  and  in  its  fruit.  The  habit 
of  growth  of  the  plant  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  fruit 
are  such  that  it  has  gained  an  important  place  as  a  com- 
mercial product.  The  black  raspberry  industry  can  be  more 
profitably  and  more  successfully  pursued  in  regions  remote 
from  large  commercial  centers,  because  the  fruit  can  be 
evaporated  and  sold  in  a  dry  state.  The  red  raspberry, 
however,  cannot  be  handled  in  this  way  and  must  be  sold 
in  a  fresh-state.  This  limits  the  production  of  the  red  rasp- 
berry group  to  regions  where  large  centers  of  population 
exist,  such  as  around  cities. 

Loganberry. — The  loganberry  is  a  hybrid  between  the  red 
antwerp  raspberry  and  a  native  blackberry  of  California, 
produced  by  Judge  J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz,  California. 
It  is  a  plant  well  adapted  to  the  northwestern  States  of 
Washington  and  Oregon  as  well  as  parts  of  California.  It 
is  not  grown  to  any  extent  in  other  regions.  The  logan- 
berry is  remarkable  for  its  productiveness,  hardiness  and 
freedom  from  insects  and  diseases.  The  fruit  is  very  large, 
often  reaching  1^  inches  in  length.  It  is  shaped  much  like 
the  blackberry  and  is  of  a  dull  crimson-red  color.  The 
plant  is  a  rank,  coarse  grower  and  produces  long  viny  canes. 
The  loganberry  has  a  flavor  intermediate  between  that  of 
the  blackberry  and  the  raspberry.  It  ships  well  if  picked 
before  it  is  too  ripe.  It  is  prized  by  many  people  for  canning, 
preserving  and  jelly  making. 

Propagation. — The  brambles  are  propagated  by  suckers, 
root  cuttings  and  tip  layering.  Each  method  of  propaga- 
tion is  satisfactory,  but  the  growth  of  some  of  the  different 
varieties  makes  one  method  better  than  some  others.  There 
is  a  great  tendency  for  some  of  the  brambles  to  throw  up 
young  plants  from  their  roots.  These  young  plants  are 
called  suckers.  The  suckers  are  cut  from  the  parent  plant 
with  a  part  of  the  root  to  which  it  is  attached  and  set  in 
a  new  place.  In  a  short  time  the  new  plant  will  soon  make 
a  fine,  large  specimen.  When  the  propagating  material  is 


212  THE  BRAMBLES 

scarce,  new  plants  can  be  produced  by  cutting  the  roots 
into  pieces  about  3  inches  long.  These  small  pieces  of 
roots  are  called  root  cuttings.  Each  root  cutting  should  be 
planted  3  or  4  inches  deep.  The  root  from  which  the  cut- 
ting is  made  should  be  from  \  to  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Certain  of  the  brambles  can  be  propagated  by  layering. 
The  dewberry  and  some  of  the  blackberry-dewberry  hybrid 
as  well  as  the  raspberries  will  root  readily  at  the  tip  of  the 
canes.  This  method  of  propagation  is  called  tip  layering. 
Tip  layering  is  performed  by  either  allowing  the  cane  to 
bend  down  and  touch  the  ground  naturally  or  to  fasten  it 
down  by  some  artificial  means.  When  the  tip  of  the  cane 
comes  in  contact  with  the  soil  it  soon  takes  root  and  in  a 
short  time  a  new  plant  is  developed. 

Soil. — The  brambles  thrive  on  nearly  any  type  of  soil 
provided  suitable  moisture  conditions  prevail.  A  sandy  or 
clay  loam  is  perhaps  the  most  preferable  when  it  can  be 
secured.  The  brambles  yield  the  largest  returns  when  they 
are  grown  upon  a  moderately  deep,  rich  soil  with  plenty  of 
available  plant  food. 

The  soil  for  the  brambles  should  be  well  prepared  the 
season  previous  to  the  setting  of  the  plants.  Some  culti- 
vated crop,  such  as  potatoes,  beans  or  cow  peas,  should  be 
planted  on  the  soil  the  previous  year,  so  that  the  ground 
will  be  well  cultivated.  This  procedure  will  ensure  the 
thorough  rotting  of  any  sod  or  organic  matter  and  will  help 
to  destroy  any  cut  worms  or  other  injurious  insects  which 
often  cause  great  damage  to  the  young  plants.  The  soil 
should  be  plowed  to  a  depth  of  8  to  10  inches  when  the 
brambles  are  planted.  After  plowing  the  ground  it  should 
be  thoroughly  harrowed  and  worked  down  until  the  soil  of 
the  plant  bed  is  fine  and  uniform.  The  subsoil  should  be 
such  as  to  give  ample  drainage.  The  brambles  cannot 
thrive  with  their  roots  growing  in  a  cold,  damp  subsoil. 

Fertilizer. — The  brambles  respond  differently  to  the  use  of 
fertilizers.  Barnyard  manure  applied  in  limited  quantities 
is  perhaps  the  best  fertilizer  for  the  brambles  in  general. 
The  manure  not  only  adds  plant  food  and  humus  but  it 
also  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 


PLANTING  213 

According  to  some  work  done  at  the  New  Jersey  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  the  barynard  manure  is  not  as 
profitable  as  the  complete  commercial  fertilizer  for  the 
red  raspberries.  There  might  be  considerable  variation  in 
different  sections  in  regard  to  the  value  of  commercial 
fertilizers.  In  all  probability  a  combination  of  both  the 
barnyard  manure  and  a  complete  commercial  fertilizer  will 
give  more  uniform  results  over  a  greater  range  of  territory. 
For  the  home  garden  the  barnyard  manure  should  be  used, 
especially  by  the  amateur.  Occasionally  there  is  some 
danger  attending  the  use  of  the  commercial  fertilizer  and 
unless  the  grower  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  handling 
of  the  product  some  damage  might  result  to  the  plants. 

Planting. — The  brambles  are  usually  planted  in  the  spring. 
A  larger  number  of  the  plants  will  grow  if  they  are  set  as 
early  as  the  land  can  be  properly  prepared.  When  early 
spring  planting  is  impossible  the  plants  can  be  set  in  the 
fall  especially  in  those  regions  where  there  is  no  danger  from 
drying  winds  during  the  winter. 

The  plants  should  be  set  a  little  deeper  than  they  for- 
merly stood  in  the  nursery  row.  If  the  crowns  project 
above  the  ground  the  canes  are  easily  broken  off.  The  top 
should  be  cut  back  to  6  or  8  inches  in  length  as  soon  as  the 
planting  is  finished. 

The  distance  to  plant  the  brambles  depends  upon  the 
purpose  of  the  crop.  If  the  soil  is  fertile  and  the  crop  is  for 
commercial  purposes  they  must  be  set  farther  apart  than  if 
the  plants  are  grown  in  the  garden  for  home  consumption. 

The  brambles  are  usually  set  3  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  and 
the  rows  6  to  8  feet  apart  for  commercial  planting  in  the 
Eastern  States.  In  other  regions  where  the  plants  grow 
very  large,  as  they  frequently  do  on  the  Pacific  coast,  they 
should  be  set  4  or  5  feet  apart  in  the  rows  and  the  rows  not 
any  closer  than  8  feet.  In  the  home  garden  where  only  a 
few  plants  of  each  bramble  are  grown,  and  where  hand  labor 
and  greater  attention  is  given  to  them,  the  plants  can  be 
set  closer  together.  Under  such  conditions  the  rows  should 
never  be  less  than  4  feet  apart  nor  the  plants  less  than 
2  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  character  of  the  soil  and  the 


214 


THE  BRAMBLES 


space  available  will  determine  the  distance  in  most  cases 
especially  in  the  home  garden. 

Systems  of  Training. — The  systems  of  training  vary  with 
the  conditions  in  the  different  sections  of  the  country.  In 
some  regions  the  canes  are  topped,  that  is,  the  tips  of  the 


FIG.  96. — A  common  form  of  trellis  for  canes  of  the  upright  types  of  brambles. 

branches  are  pinched  off  with  the  fingers  when  they  have 
reached  a  height  of  2J  or  3  feet.  All  canes  do  not  reach 
the  desired  height  at  the  same  time,  and  the  patch  must  be 
pruned  several  times.  The  pinching  off  of  the  tip  causes 
the  canes  to  branch  and  they  are  better  able  to  stand  erect 


FIG.  97. — A  form  of  trellis  for  canes  of  the  trailing  types  of  brambles. 

under  heavy  crops  of  berries.  In  some  cases  when  pinch- 
ing off  is  practised  the  canes  will  stand  erect  without  sup- 
ports. If  supports  are  needed  wires  can  be  stretched  along 
rows  of  posts  close  to  the  brambles.  A  trellis  of  this  kind 
is  made  by  setting  posts  at  intervals  of  from  15  to  25  feet. 


PRUNING  215 

A  wire  is  stretched  along  the  posts  about  2J  feet  above  the 
ground  and  the  canes  are  tied  to  the  wire.  A  modification 
of  this  trellis  is  made  by  nailing  a  cross-piece,  18  inches 
long,  to  the  post  near  the  top.  Two  wires  are  then  stretched 
along  the  posts  and  fastened  to  the  cross-bars.  The  brambles 
are  now  allowed  to  grow  between  the  wires,  which  forms  a 
support  on  either  side  of  them. 

Brambles  of  the  upright  growing  type,  as  some  of  the  black- 
berries, are  supported  by  tying  the  canes  to  a  trellis  made 
by  stretching  two  or  three  wires  along  several  posts  set  at 
intervals  of  from  15  to  20  feet.  The  trailing  types  of  bram- 
bles are  sometimes  allowed  to  run  along  the  wires  of  the 
trellis  similar  to  that  of  the  grapevine.  Either  two  or  three 
wires  can  be  fastened  to  the  posts.  The  number  of  wires  is 
determined  by  the  type  of  the  bramble.  If  the  brambles 
are  planted  in  hills,  which  is  occasionally  done,  posts  can 
be  set  at  each  plant  and  the  canes  fastened  to  the  post. 

Pruning. — The  blackberries  and  the  raspberries  are  suffi- 
ciently alike  to  make  the  pruning  of  each  practically  the  same. 

Both  the  blackberry  and  the  raspberry  have  a  great 
tendency  to  sucker.  These  suckers  not  only  grow  about 
the  parent  plant  but  also  between  the  rows.  A  certain 
percentage  of  all  these  suckers  should  be  removed  as  soon 
as  they  appear,  and  especially  those  which  grow  between 
the  rows. 

As  soon  as  the  berries  are  picked,  the  old  canes  which 
have  just  borne  the  fruit,  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the 
ground  and  burned.  This  practice  allows  the  young  canes 
more  room  in  which  to  develop  and  at  the  same  time  destroys 
any  diseases  or  insects  that  are  present. 

In  some  sections  the  plants  are  topped,  that  is,  the  tip 
of  the  canes  are  pinched  off  with  the  fingers  when  the  canes 
have  reached  a  height  of  2J  or  3  feet.  This  pinching  back 
of  the  canes  causes  them  to  branch  and  they  are  better  able 
to  support  their  fruit  without  breaking  over. 

The  canes  should  be  thinned  out  in  the  row,  so  that 
only  four  or  five  are  grown  in  one  clump.  This  practice 
is  conducive  to  good  healthy  plants  and  also  produces  the 
best  quality  of  fruit. 


216  THE  BRAMBLES 

Winter  Protection.— The  brambles  require  some  winter 
protection  in  the  northern  and  central  western  States  which 
are  subject  to  cold  drying  winds.  Although  some  of  the 
brambles,  particularly  the  blackberries,  can  withstand  very 
cold  weather,  some  protection  is  usually  advisable.  The 
plants  are  first  taken  from  their  trellis  or  support  and  laid 
on  the  ground.  It  is  then  a  relatively  easy  matter  to  cover 
up  the  canes  with  soil.  If  the  soil  is  not  sufficient  to  thor- 
oughly protect  the  plants,  hay,  straw  or  coarse  manure  can 
be  added  later  in  the  winter.  As  soon  as  the  cold  weather 
is  over  the  materials  are  removed  and  the  plants  fastened 
to  the  supports.  The  strawy  material  which  has  been 
removed  will  form  a  mulch  for  the  ground  during  the  growing 
season  and  in  this  way  will  serve  two  purposes.  A  mulch 
is  of  great  value  in  retarding  the  evaporation  of  water  from 
the  soil.  It  also  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  the  weed 
down  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  of  preventing  a  rank  growth 
of  suckers.  Where  the  plants  are  mulched  the  material 
should  not  be  removed  from  the  canes  until  all  danger  of 
severe  weather  is  past. 

Harvesting. — The  fruit  of  the  brambles  is  usually  hand- 
picked.  This  method  of  harvesting  is  necessary  because 
of  the  soft  nature  of  the  fruit.  The  keeping  qualities  of 
the  fruit  of  any  variety  depends  largely  upon  the  care 
exercised  in  the  picking  and  the  handling.  If  the  berries  are 
bruised  or  injured  in  any  way  the  fruit  is  quickly  destroyed 
by  moulds. 

The  time  for  picking  the  fruit  depends  upon  the  season  of 
maturity  and  the  variety.  Some  varieties  may  be  picked 
soon  after  the  berries  turn  black,  while  others  color  up 
before  they  are  ripe.  The  berries  should  not  be  picked 
until  they  become  sweet,  but  should  still  be  firm  enough  to 
market  well. 

The  fruit  of  the  brambles  is  marketed  in  either  pint  or  quart 
boxes,  like  that  of  the  strawberry.  Perhaps  the  shallow 
pint  boxes  are  preferable  to  the  quarts  because  the  weight 
of  the  berries  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  mash  the  lower 
ones.  The  boxes  are  packed  in  crates  which  vary  in  size 
from  16  to  24  boxes  to  the  crate. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAMBLES  217 

The  fruit  should  be  kept  in  a  shady  place  in  the  field,  and 
taken  to  the  refrigerator  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  picked. 

Varieties. — The  brambles  vary  so  in  their  ability  to  with- 
stand cold  that  they  are  usually  divided  into  three  groups, 
the  hardy,  the  half-hardy  and  the  tender  sorts.  The  hardy 
varieties  should  be  selected  for  planting  in  the  northern 
regions  where  severe  weather  prevails.  In  such  districts  the 
plants  should  be  mulched  to  prevent  them  from  winter  killing. 
The  half-hardy  varieties  grow  and  succeed  in  the  middle 
states  or  in  a  region  farther  south  than  where  the  northern 
varieties  are  grown.  The  tender  varieties  have  originated 
for  the  most  part  in  the  southwest,  and  are  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  semi-arid  conditions  that  prevail  in  those  sections. 
These  varieties  are  somewhat  drought  resistant  and  mature 
their  fruits  before  the  season  becomes  too  warm. 

The  Pacific  coast  region  grows  a  large  number  of  varie- 
ties. Some  of  these  are  common  in  the  east  and  some  are 
adapted  to  other  sections  of  the  United  States.  There  are 
many  brambles  grown  in  the  Pacific  coast  region  that  are 
not  adapted  to  any  other  section  of  the  country.  This  is 
possible  because  of  the  wide  variation  in  the  climate  as  well 
as  in  the  rainfall. 

There  can  be  no  authentic  list  of  varieties  that  will  succeed 
in  all  regions.  The  grower  must  first  decide  whether  his 
local  conditions  will  permit  the  growing  of  the  tender,  half- 
hardy  or  hardy  types.  It  is  not  profitable  to  select  varieties 
which  are  not  perfectly  hardy.  An  inquiry  among  the  grow- 
ers in  his  immediate  vicinity  as  to  the  best  variety 'to  select 
is  recommended.  The  grower  should  as  far  as  possible 
select  those  varieties  which  are  best  suited  to  his  particular 
section. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAMBLES. 

There  are  several  diseases  and  insects  found  on  both  the 
blackberry  and  the  raspberry.  However,  by  the  use  of 
the  proper  preventives  these  troubles  can  be  held  in  check 
and  good  yields  obtained. 

Leaf  Spot. — The  leaf  spot  is  a  disease  found  upon  the  leaves 
of  the  blackberry  and  the  raspberry.  The  disease  appears 


218  THE  BRAMBLES 

as  small  spots  on  the  leaves.  The  central  region  of  the 
spots  is  white  while  the  border  is  of  a  reddish  color.  This 
disease  is  exceedingly  common  and  widespread.  No  treat- 
ment has  yet  been  demonstrated  to  be  of  sufficient  value  to 
be  recommended.  It  is  not  often  very  serious. 

Anthracnose. — The  anthracnose  is  a  very  serious  disease 
of  both  the  blackberry  and  the  raspberry.  It  has  caused 
great  loss  in  several  states.  The  disease  attacks  chiefly 
the  young  canes,  but  is  also  found  upon  the  leaves.  The 
disease  appears  as  small  purplish  spots  which  later  become 
grayish  white  in  the  centers.  As  the  spots  increase  in  size, 
they  coalesce,  making  irregular  blotches  varying  from  |  to 
J  inch  in  length.  The  affected  leaves  refuse  to  grow  and 
finally  dry  up  and  fall  off.  The  anthracnose  is  not  very 
destructive  if  rotation  of  crops  is  practised.  In  addition  to 
rotation,  the  infected  canes  should  be  cut  out  and  burned. 
Spraying  with  standard  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  will  aid 
in  preventing  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

Cane  Blight. — The  cane  blight  is  sometimes  very  injurious 
in  certain  regions.  The  injury  occurs  to  the  fruiting  canes, 
the  foliage  of  which  wilts  and  dies.  This  disease  often 
enters  the  canes  through  slits  made  in  pruning.  The  disease 
is  largely  distributed  through  nursery  stock  and  by  work- 
men. The  cane  blight  should  be  prevented  as  much  as 
possible  by  planting  only  healthy  plants  and  all  diseased 
canes  should  be  immediately  burned.  It  is  never  advisable 
to  replant  on  ground  that  has  been  previously  infected. 

INSECTS  OF  THE  BRAMBLES. 

Raspberry-cane  Borer. — The  raspberry-cane  borer  some- 
times becomes  troublesome.  The  adult  insect  is  a  beetle 
about  \  inch  in  length.  It  has  a  slender  body  which  is  black 
in  color  except  the  prothorax,  which  is  yellow.  Occasion- 
ally two  or  three  black  spots  are  found  on  the  wings.  The 
beetles  appear  in  the  early  summer  and  the  females  girdle 
the  young  tip  in  two  places,  causing  it  to  wither  and  die. 
Between  the  two  girdled  portions  the  female  deposits  her 
eggs,  which  soon  hatch  and  the  larvae  burrow  downward. 


SPRAYING  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  BRAMBLES         219 

By  fall  they  have  reached  the  root,  where  they  remain  over 
winter.  This  insect  is  held  in  control  by  cutting  off  the 
tip  of  the  canes  below  the  girdled  point  and  burning  them. 
Spraying  is  not  effective  against  this  kind  of  insect. 

SPRAYING  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  BRAMBLES. 

When  the  new  canes  are  8  to  10  inches  high  begin  spray- 
ing with  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  and  repeat  at  intervals 
of  every  two  or  three  weeks  throughout  the  growing  season. 
If  worms  or  slugs  appear  and  destroy  the  foliage  by  eating  it, 
add  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  spray. 
After  the  fruiting  season  has  passed,  thoroughly  inspect  the 
canes,  cut  out  and  burn  all  those  which  are  irregular  in 
growth,  weak  or  infected  with  galls,  tree  cricket  eggs  or 
stem  borers. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  plants  that  are  included  under  the  brambles. 

2.  Tell  the  difference  between  the  blackberry  and  the  dewberry. 

3.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  raspberry?     How  is  the  raspberry  group 
divided? 

4.  What   is  the  difference  between  the  red  raspberry  and  the  black 
raspberry? 

5.  Why  is  the  black  raspberry  grown  over  a  greater  area  than  the  red 
raspberry? 

6.  Give  the  origin  of  the  loganberry?     Where  is  its  native  home? 

7.  Discuss  the  three  ways  in  which  the  brambles  are  propagated. 

8.  Which  method  of  propagation  is  most  commonly  employed? 

9.  Discuss  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  brambles. 

10.  What  advantage  has  barnyard  manure  over  commercial  fertilizer? 

11.  What  is  the  most  desirable  way  to  fertilize  the  brambles  in  the  home 
garden?     Why? 

12.  Discuss  the  planting  of  the  brambles. 

13.  What  determines  the  distance  the  plants  are  set? 

14.  Why  are  the  brambles  set  closer  together  in  the  home  garden  than  in 
the  commercial  plantation? 

15.  Discuss  the  several  ways  of  training  the  brambles. 

16.  Discuss  a  good  way  to  protect  brambles  during  cold  weather. 

17.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  give  the  brambles  winter  protection? 

18.  What  is  the  determining  factor  in  selecting  a  variety  of  one  of  the 
brambles? 

19.  Name  and  describe  the  important  diseases  and  insects. 

20.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  brambles. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
THE  GRAPE. 

AMERICA  has  about  twenty  species  of  native  wild  grapes. 
A  few  of  this  number  have  been  fully  tested  under  cultivation. 
There  is  practically  no  part  of  North  America  without  some 
native  species.  In  many  sections  these  wild  species  are 
important  fruits  and  are  the  parents  of  our  commercial 
varieties. 

The  two  great  classes  of  grapes  grown  in  this  country 
are  the  American  species  or  the  labrusca  grapes,  of  which 
the  Concord,  the  Delaware  and  the  Niagara  are  common 
examples,  and  the  European  or  vinifera  varieties,  such  as  the 
Malaga,  Tokay  and  Thompson  Seedless,  which  are  confined 
to  the  warmer  Pacific  coast  region.  The  grapes  grown  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  practically  all  improved  native 
species,  but  west  of  the  mountains  along  the  Pacific  coast  the 
European  species  are  the  grapes  which  are  largely  grown. 

The  grape  is  of  very  easy  culture  and  brings  almost  certain 
reward  for  the  care  and  the  attention  which  is  given  to  it. 

Propagation. — The  grape  is  propagated  by  seed,  hard-wood 
cuttings,  layering  and  in  some  regions  by  grafting.  Grafting 
is  most  often  done  in  California,  where  the  European  varieties 
are  worked  on  the  American  roots,  in  order  to  avoid  the  loss 
due  to  an  insect  known  as  the  phylloxera. 

The  grapes  propagated  by  seed  are  used  either  as  stocks  on 
which  to  graft  known  sorts  or  to  obtain  new  varieties.  The 
seed  should  be  sown,  as  soon  as  it  is  gathered,  in  rich  soil, 
to  a  depth  of  J  inch,  and  protected  by  a  mulch  during 
the  winter.  Where  the  seed  is  grown  in  a  haphazard  way 
there  is  very  little  chance  of  ever  producing  fruit  of  any  value. 
The  intelligent  hybridizing  or  the  crossing  of  two  staple 
varieties  of  known  worth  is  a  much  better  way  of  securing 
new  varieties  of  value. 


PROPAGATION 


221 


The  propagation  by  hard-wood  cuttings  is  the  most  prac- 
tical and  the  most  widely  used  method.  The  hard-wood 
cuttings  of  the  grape  are  made  in  several  ways,  namely,  as 
one-eye,  two-eye,  three-eye,  heel  and  mallet  cuttings.  The 
two-  and  the  three-eye  cuttings  are  most  often  employed. 


FIG.  98. — Two-  and  three-eye  rooted  cuttings  of  the  grape. 

The  one-eye  cutting  is  only  used  when  the  cutting  wood  is 
scarce  and  a  large  number  of  cuttings  are  made.  The  heel 
and  the  mallet  cuttings  are  only  used  in  special  cases.  A  few 
varieties  will  grow  better  when  a  small  piece  of  the  parent 
branch  is  attached,  as  in  the  heel  and  the  mallet  cutting. 


222 


THE  GRAPE 


The  length  of  the  straight  stem  hard-wood  cutting  varies 
according  to  the  variety  and  the  amount  of  available  cutting 
wood.  When  it  is  possible  the  cutting  should  be  about 
8  inches  long.  Shorter  cuttings  should  only  be  used  when 
absolutely  necessary. 

The  cuttings  should  be  handled  as  described  in  the  chapter 
on  the  Propagation  of  Plants. 


FIG.  99. — Rooted  heel  cuttings  of  the  grape. 

The  grapes  of  all  varieties  are  easily  propagated  by  layering. 
This  method  of  propagation  is  neither  adapted  to  the  rapid 
multiplication  of  the  plant  nor  is  it  very  well  suited  to  the 
commercial  propagation  of  the  grape.  It  is,  however,  an 
excellent  means  for  increasing  the  grape  for  home  use  where 
only  a  few  well-developed  and  strong  plants  are  needed. 


SOIL  223 

There  are  several  methods  of  layering  commonly  employed : 
The  serpentine  and  the  trench  layer  are  perhaps  the  most 
practical.  Layering  is  especially  valuable  for  the  amateur, 
because  very  little  knowledge  of  the  growth  of  a  plant  is 
necessary  to  have  good  success  with  layering.  The  essential 
step  in  layering  is  to  break  or  twist  the  cane  at  several  points 
and  then  cover  it  up  with  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  inches. 
If  serpentine  layering  is  the  method  selected  the  cane  is 
covered  at  several  places,  leaving  a  corresponding  space  not 
covered.  Several  plants  will  grow  from  this  parent  cane  and 
the  young  plants  can  be  removed  when  they  have  a  well- 
developed  root  system. 

Soil. — The  grape  does  the  best  if  grown  on  a  good  sandy 
loam.  A  clay  loam  is  also  satisfactory  in  many  cases  if  it  is 
well  drained.  The  soil  should  be  fertile  but  not  excessively 
rich.  It  should  be  loose  and  easily  worked.  The  presence 
of  lime  in  a  soil  seems  to  be  beneficial. 

The  subsoil  should  be  open  and  somewhat  loose  in  texture. 
The  character  of  the  subsoil  is  important.  The  roots  are 
easily  injured  by  excessive  heat  and  draught  as  well  as  by 
standing  water,  and  if  the  texture  of  the  subsoil  is  such  that 
the  roots  cannot  penetrate  it  the  vine  will  usually  suffer. 
This  is  particularly  true  if  the  subsoil  is  comparatively  close 
to  the  surface. 

The  soils  underlaid  with  a  hard  pan  or  those  which  are 
inclined  to  wash  badly,  as  well  as  poorly  drained  ones, 
should  always  be  avoided  when  selecting  a  location  for  the 
grape. 

The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  by  plowing  and 
harrowing  it  before  planting  the  grape.  Where  conditions 
warrant  it  the  soil  will  be  greatly  improved  by  incorporating 
well-rotted  manure  with  it  before  planting  the  vines. 

The  soil  with  reference  to  the  general  location  is  impor- 
tant. The  situation  for  the  grape  should  be  one  which  is 
protected  from  cold  winds.  A  warm  sunny  exposure  with  a 
free  circulation  of  air  is  very  desirable.  A  southern  slope 
generally  offers  the  best  location.  Other  slopes  and  level 
land  are  used  extensively  for  growing  the  grape,  but  the  fruit 
is  usually  a  little  longer  in  ripening.  Excellent  fruit  is  often 


224  THE  GRAPE 

grown  on  northern  slopes  if  they  have  the  modifying  influ- 
ences of  some  large  body  of  water. 

Planting. — The  most  economical  way  of  planting  the  grape 
is  to  furrow  out  the  land  one  way  and  mark  it  the  other.  The 
vines  are  then  set  at  the  intersection  of  the  furrow  and  the 
mark.  For  home  planting  a  hole  large  enough  to  receive  the 
roots  without  crowding  them  can  be  made  with  the  ordinary 
spade  or  any  other  digging  implement. 

When  planting  the  vines  it  is  always  well  to  select  a  cloudy 
day  and  to  have  the  soil  in  a  damp  condition  but  not  wet. 
The  vines  suffer  less  from  exposure  when  they  are  planted 
under  these  conditions.  The  tops  of  the  vines  should  be  cut 
off  so  that  only  three  or  four  buds  remain  before  they  are 
planted.  The  roots  should  be  cut  back  to  a  uniform  length, 
say  about  10  to  12  inches.  On  light  soils  it  is  very  important 
to  have  the  plants  set  deep,  and  on  such  soils  12  to  15  inches 
is  not  too  deep.  The  fertile  top  soil  should  be  worked  about 
the  roots,  but  the  plants  should  not  be  covered  more  than  2 
or  3  inches  deeper  than  they  stood  in  the  nursery  row  at  the 
time  of  planting.  Gradually  add  the  remainder  of  the  soil 
until  the  plants  are  at  the  required  depth. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  plant  deep  on  heavy  soils  and  6  to  8 
inches  is  about  the  right  depth. 

The  distance  apart  the  plants  should  be  set  depends  some- 
what upon  the  vigor  of  the  plant  and  the  variety  which  is 
selected.  The  method  of  training  and  pruning  as  well  as  the 
soil  also  regulates  the  distance.  The  strong  growing  varieties 
are  sometimes  set  10  feet  apart  each  way,  but  occasionally 
some  growers  will  set  the  plants  7  to  8  feet  in  the  rows  and  the 
rows  8  to  10  feet  apart.  The  stronger  growing  varieties,  like 
the  Niagara  and  the  Concord,  will  have  to  be  set  at  a  greater 
distance  than  a  weaker  growing  variety  like  the  Delaware. 

Only  strong  one-year-old  vines  produced  from  layers  or 
from  cuttings  should  be  planted.  Two-year-old  vines  often- 
times do  not  grow  well,  while  older  vines  are  of  very  little 
value. 

It  is  more  economical  and  in  every  way  more  profitable  to 
pay  a  good  price  for  the  best  vines  than  to  use  inferior  ones 
which  cost  nothing. 


PRUNING  225 

The  vines  of  each  variety  should  be  planted  together  and 
as  soon  as  the  planting  is  completed  a  record  should  be  made 
which  will  show  the  location  of  all  the  vines  of  each  variety. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  the  grape  should  begin 
soon  after  the  vines  are  planted.  The  tillage  should  be 
shallow  enough  so  as  not  to  strike  the  roots.  The  vineyards 
should  be  kept  free  from  weeds.  During  the  first  two  years 
some  hoed  crop  can  be  grown  between  the  rows  which  will  be 
a  benefit  to  the  plants  by  shading  them.  After  a  year  or  two 
the  vines  will  need  all  of  the  room.  The  narrow  strips  left 
along  the  rows  should  be  cleaned  out  with  the  hoe.  A  one- 
horse  cultivator  will  usually  be  the  most  economical  for 
cultivating  between  the  rows. 

The  cultivation  should  stop  when  the  fruit  begins  to  weigh 
down  the  vines.  As  soon  as  the  crop  has  been  harvested,  the 
cultivator  should  be  run  down  the  middle  of  the  rows  and  the 
ground  sown  to  some  cover  crop.  Crimson  clover  or  cow 
peas  seem  to  serve  this  purpose  well,  although  rye,  buck- 
wheat and  hairy  vetch  are  sometimes  used. 

Pruning. — The  pruning  and  the  training  of  the  grape  to  a 
definite  system  usually  go  together.  It  is  necessary  to  follow 
a  uniform  method  of  pruning  in  order  to  train  the  vine  to  a 
certain  system.  It  requires  judgment  as  well  as  knowledge 
of  the  vine.  When  the  vines  are  in  a  vigorous  condition  the 
pruning  and  the  training  becomes  almost  optional  with  the 
grower,  although  there  is  no  doubt  that  certain  varieties  of 
grapes  do  the  best  when  trained  to  a  certain  system. 

In  pruning  the  grape  the  relationship  of  the  wood  to 
fruit  bearing  should  be  thoroughly  understood.  The  pruner 
must  keep  in  mind  that  the  fruit  of  any  year  is  borne  near  the 
base  of  shoots  of  the  same  year,  which  spring  either  from  the 
canes  of  the  preceding  year  or  from  older  wood. 

Since  each  shoot  bears  from  two  to  three  clusters  of  fruit, 
only  two  or  three  buds  should  be  left  on  the  cane  of  the 
previous  year's  growth.  Usually  two  or  more  canes  are 
selected  on  one  or  two  of  the  main  stems.  Good  pruning, 
then,  means  removing  all  wood  except  canes  sufficient  to 
furnish  the  shoots  necessary  for  the  desired  number  of  clusters. 

The  time  for  the  pruning  of  the  grapes  varies  somewhat 
15 


226  THE  GRAPE 

with  the  growers  and  the  localities,  but  it  usually  extends 
from  the  dropping  of  the  leaves  in  the  fall  to  a  time  just 
before  the  swelling  of  the  buds  in  the  spring. 

Systems  of  Training. — The  training  and  the  pruning  of  the 
grape  are  closely  allied.  In  discussing  training  it  is  necessary 
to  use  certain  terms  characteristic  of  the  grape  and  a  brief 
definition  of  these  terms  should  logically  find  a  place  here. 
The  terms  commonly  used  are  (1)  shoot,  which  is  a  green  or 
immature  growth  less  than  one  year  old;  (2)  cane,  which  is  a 
matured  shoot;  (3)  arm,  which  is  an  old  cane  three  or  more 
years  old;  (4)  branch,  which  is  a  division  of  an  arm;  (5)  stem, 
which  is  the  part  that  supports  the  entire  vine. 


FIG.  100. — Single-stem  Kniffen  system  of  training  the  grape.    . 

In  the  training  of  a  vine  a  support  is  necessary.  This 
support  is  called  an  arbor  or  a  trellis.  The  best  trellis  is  one 
that  permits  the  vine  to  grow  without  crowding  and  also 
holds  it  in  such  a  position  so  that  all  parts  can  be  easily 
reached  when  spraying  and  gathering  the  fruit.  The  trellis 
should  not  be  too  expensive.  There  are  many  different 
styles  of  support  and  each  has  its  advantages  as  well  as  its 
disadvantages.  The  support  adopted  will  depend  upon  the 
variety  of  grape  which  is  grown  and  also  whether  it  is  for 
commercial  or  home  planting. 

Stakes. — The  cheapest  and  the  most  simple  method  of 
training  the  grape  is  by  setting  a  stake  at  each  vine  and 
tying  it  to  the  stake.  This  method  affords  an  opportunity 
for  cultivating  the  soil  in  both  directions  and  is  preferred  by 


SYSTEMS  OF  TRAINING  227 

some  growers.  The  weaker  growing  varieties  are  usually 
trained  by  this  method.  The  stakes  should  be  2  or  3  inches 
square  or  2  or  3  inches  in  diameter  and  at  least  5  or  6  feet  in 
length.  The  most  durable  wood  should  be  used.  Occasion- 
ally when  the  vines  are  trained  to  stakes  it  is  necessary  to 
use  two  of  them  .for  the  stronger  growing  varieties. 

Trellises. — A  good  trellis  can  be  made  by  the  use  of  several 
good  posts  and  some  wire.  The  posts  should  be  of  the  most 
durable  wood  and  about  7  or  8  feet  in  length;  2  or  3  feet 
of  the  post  should  be  set  in  the  ground,  leaving  the  trellis 
about  5  feet  in  height.  The  posts  at  the  ends  of  the  rows 
should  be  heavier  than  those  in  the  center,  because  the 
greatest  strain  comes  on  the  end  posts.  The  posts  should 
alternate  between  the  vines  and  not  set  directly  in  front  of 
any  one.  They  should  be  set  twice  the  distance  between  the 
vines.  After  the  posts  are  set,  galvanized  iron  wire  should 
be  stretched  along  the  row  and  the  wire  should  be  securely 
fastened  to  each  post  with  a  staple.  Galvanized  iron  wire  no 
smaller  than  No.  12  should  be  used.  Three  wires  are  usually 
much  better  than  two.  The  lower  wire  should  be  about  15 
to  20  inches  above  the  ground.  The  other  wires  should  be 
spaced  about  12  to  14  inches  apart. 

When  the  wires  are  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  posts  it  is 
called  a  vertical  trellis.  Several  methods  of  training  the 
grape  may  be  used  on  the  vertical  trellis.  The  two  most 
common  systems  are  the  horizontal  arm  and  the.  fan  system. 
When  the  fan  system  is  adopted  it  is  much  the  same  as  that 
practised  when  the  vines  are  trained  on  stakes.  This  method 
is  virtually  a  renewal  system  because  the  vine  is  practically 
renewed  each  year.  Two  or  three  shoots  are  grown  near  the 
ground  each  year,  and  these  are  tied  to  wires,  the  ends  being 
cut  off  when  the  young  canes  are  4  or  5  feet  long. 

The  canes  are  then  trained  to  the  wires  in  a  fan  shape.  The 
side  canes  on  the  branches  are  shortened  to  spurs  of  two  or 
three  buds.  Only  three  or  four  of  the  side  canes  should  be 
allowed  to  grow  on  the  branches.  All  of  the  other  canes 
should  be  removed. 

The  arm  system  of  training  consists  in  allowing  a  single 
stem  to  grow  to  the  desired  height.  The  end  of  the  stem  is 


228  THE  GRAPE 

then  cut  off  and  the  two  upper  canes  are  trained  hori- 
zontally along  one  of  the  wires  and  forms  the  arms.  All 
other  canes  should  be  removed  so  soon  as  they  start  growth. 
There  are  two  ways  of  fastening  the  arms  to  the  supports : 
Some  growers  prefer  to  cut  the  stem  short  and  train  the  arm 
to  the  first  wire.  The  future  branches  can  then  grow  up  and 
be  fastened  to  the  upper  wires.  Some  other  growers  prefer 
to  have  the  stem  long  so  it  will  reach  the  top  wire  and  the 
future  branches  will  hang  down.  Either  system  can  be 
used  according  to  the  choice  of  the  grower. 


FIG.  101. — Upright  renewal  system  of  training  the  grape. 

The  Overhead  System. — The  overhead  system  is  only 
adapted  for  small  areas  of  grapes  around  the  home.  It  is 
nothing  more  than  the  common  grape  arbor.  In  many 
sections  it  is  fast  disappearing  and  is  being  replaced  by  the 
other  methods  of  training.  However,  there  are  certain  places 
where  the  grape  can  be  satisfactorily  trained  by  this  method. 
The  overhead  system  is  supported  by  a  trellis  made  by 
placing  posts  in  the  ground  8  to  10  feet  apart.  The  posts  are 
usually  8  or  9  feet  long  and  set  in  the  ground  2  or  3  feet.  The 
posts  are  set  in  two  rows  and  each  post  opposite  the  other. 
A  2  x  4  is  then  nailed  across  the  top  of  two  posts.  When  this 
frame  is  completed  strips  1x2  inches  are  nailed  along  the 
sides  and  over  the  top  of  the  frame.  These  strips  should 
be  at  least  2  feet  apart. 

Harvesting  and  Packing. — The  grape  should  not  be  picked 
until  it  is  fully  ripe  for  use  in  the  home  or  for  making  wine. 


VARIETIES  229 

There  are  many  varieties  which  become  highly  colored  some 
time  before  they  are  fully  matured,  but  they  are  not  ripe. 
If  the  grape  is  picked  as  soon  as  it  colors  up  the  fruit  will  be 
sour  and  inferior  in  quality.  When  the  grape  is  ripe  and  in 
the  best  condition  to  pick  the  stem  will  begin  to  shrivel 
slightly  or  will  soften  a  little  so  that  it  can  be  easily  bent. 

The  grape  should  never  be  gathered  when  the  vines  are 
wet  with  dew  or  rain.  The  stems  should  always  be  cut  and 
the  bunch  should  never  be  pulled  or  broken  off.  The  bunches 
should  be  laid  either  in  shallow  trays  or  in  baskets  when  they 
are  carried  to  the  packing  house.  The  packing  of  grapes  will 
be  made  much  easier  if  the  grapes  are  allowed  to  lie  for  a 
couple  of  hours  until  the  stems  become  slightly  wilted.  The 
bunches  should  be  placed  in  the  baskets  with  their  stems 
down.  Each  bunch  should  be  packed  firmly  in  the  carrier 
or  the  fruit  will  move  about  and  be  greatly  injured  before  it 
reaches  the  market. 

A  package  should  never  contain  more  than  one  variety  of 
grapes.  Neither  should  mixed  nor  inferior  fruit  be  included 
in  any  pack,  because  it  reduces  the  value  of  the  good  fruit. 

The  grape  ripens  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer 
when  it  is  still  warm.  Therefore  grapes  cannot  be  kept  for 
any  length  of  tune  unless  they  are  immediately  placed  in 
cold  storage.  Even  under  the  best  conditions  the  grape 
can  only  be  held  for  a  limited  time.  It  is  usually  better  to 
dispose  of  the  crop  when  it  is  harvested  than  it  is  to  attempt 
to  hold  it. 

Varieties. — The  selection  of  varieties  is  a  most  difficult 
undertaking.  Their  behavior  and  requirements  are  varied 
according  to  the  soil  and  the  climate,  so  that  it  would  be  folly 
to  offer  a  list  for  any  given  section.  There  are,  however, 
several  varieties  that  do  well  over  a  considerably  large  area 
and  might  be  listed  for  the  aid  of  some.  The  Concord, 
Worden  and  the  Moore,  which  are  dark  grapes,  and  the 
Niagara,  which  is  a  white  grape,  succeed  in  many  parts  of 
the  N6rth. 

The  Delaware  is  perhaps  the  finest  quality  grape,  but  it 
must  be  given  special  care,  and  some  skill  is  necessary  in 
growing  it.  It  usually  takes  an  experienced  grower  to  sue- 


230  THE  GRAPE 

ceed  with  this  variety,  although  the  amateur  sometimes  has 
good  success  with  it. 

The  Catawba  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  the  best  known  of 
our  native  varieties.  It  is  a  late  grape  and  does  not  succeed 
over  so  great  a  range  of  territory  as  the  other  varieties 
enumerated.  A  few  other  varieties  worth  mentioning  are 
the  Brighton,  Diamond  and  Woodruff. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   GEAPE. 

The  grape  is  subject  to  several  diseases  and  insects.  In 
some  sections  these  maladies  become  so  troublesome  that 
grapes  are  not  often  grown.  Luckily,  if  proper  spraying  is 
done  many  of  these  troubles  can  be  controlled. 

Black  Rot. — The  black  rot  is  probably  the  most  serious 
trouble  to  the  grape-growing  industry.  This  disease  is  of 
American  origin  and  well  distributed  over  the  grape-growing 
regions  of  the  United  States.  The  black  rot  not  only  attacks 
the  fruit,  but  it  is  found  on  the  leaves,  stems  and  young  canes. 
The  berries  are  the  most  seriously  affected,  although  the  dis- 
ease, as  a  rule,  first  appears  on  the  leaves  as  circular,  sharply 
defined,  brown  spots.  The  berries  are  usually  attacked  when 
they  are  about  one-third  grown.  The  disease  appears  as 
small  purplish-brown  spots  on  the  fruit  which  gradually  spread 
over  the  whole  surface  of  the  berry.  The  affected  fruit 
becomes  dark  in  color  in  a  short  time  and  later  shrinks  up, 
but  in  most  cases  hangs  on  the  stem  for  some  time  after  it 
is  attacked.  The  berries  rarely  ever  shell  off. 

The  general  experience  of  growers  with  the  common  varie- 
ties of  the  dark  colored  grapes  would  indicate  that  all  of 
them  are  susceptible  to  this  disease.  Some  of  the  light 
colored  varieties  seem  to  be  practically  immune.  There  is, 
however,  a  great  difference  in  resistance  of  the  different 
varieties,  which  is  probably  determined  by  their  environ- 
mental condition.  The  Scuppernong  variety  seems  to  be  the 
least  affected  by  this  disease  and  is  considered  practically 
immune. 

Clean  culture  and  thorough  spraying  will  control  this 
disease  to  a  large  degree.  The  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  is 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GRAPE 


231 


the  most  effective,  and  the  first  application  should  be  given 
about  the  time  the  young  shoots  are  a  foot  long.  The  spray 
ing  should  be  continued  throughout  the  summer  at  intervals 
of  two  or  three  weeks  until  five  or  six  sprayings  have  been 
given.  The  number  of  sprayings  that  will  be  required  will 


FIG.  102.— Black  rot  of  the  Niagara  grape.      (After  Reddick,  Cornell  Bulletin 

No.  293.) 

depend  largely  upon  the  weather  conditions.  In  regions 
where  the  rain  fall  is  abundant  more  spraying  will  be 
necessary. 

Powdery  Mildew. — The  powdery  mildew  is  also  a  native 
of  the  United  States.     It  is  widely  disseminated  and  now 


232  THE  GRAPE 

covers  all  of  Europe.  It  is  also  known  in  every  part  of  the 
United  States.  This  disease  attacks  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
first  appearing  as  white  circular  spots  upon  both  the  upper 
and  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  young  leaves.  These  spots 
gradually  enlarge  and  may  finally  cover  the  entire  surface 
of  the  leaf.  The  affected  leaves  are  retarded  in  growth  and 
the  blossoms  which  are  attacked  fail  to  set  fruit.  The 
affected  fruit  ceases  to  grow  and  either  falls  off  or  fails  to 
ripen. 

The  powdery  mildew  is  strictly  superficial  and  it  is  easily 
rubbed  off  of  the  affected  parts  with  the  hand.  Damp,  rainy 
weather  favors  its  development,  while  dry  windy  weather 
has  a  tendency  to  check  it.  The  American  varieties  of  grapes 
are  less  susceptible  to  the  powdery  mildew  than  the  European 
sorts. 

There  are  two  methods  of  controlling  the  mildew,  namely, 
dusting  and  spraying.  In  regions  where  the  wind  is  light,  the 
dusting  with  flowers  of  sulphur  on  every  part  of  the  plant  is 
effective.  Several  applications  of  sulphur  should  be  given. 
The  first  application  should  be  applied  at  the  time  the 
blossoms  begin  to  open.  If  signs  of  the  mildew  are  observed 
later,  additional  applications  should  be  made  at  once. 
Spraying  with  a  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  is  effective.  If 
the  vines  have  been  sprayed  for  the  black  rot  this  spray  will 
be  effective  in  controlling  the  mildew. 

Downy  Mildew. — The  downy  mildew  somewhat  resembles 
the  powdery  mildew.  It  is  widely  distributed  on  both  the 
cultivated  and  the  wild  species  of  grapes.  All  parts  of  the 
plant  are  affected,  namely,  the  young  shoots,  the  leaves  and 
the  fruit.  The  inquiry  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
powdery  mildew.  The  same  methods  of  control  as  recom- 
mended for  the  powdery  mildew  are  effective  in  controlling 
the  downy  mildew,  but  perhaps  Bordeaux  mixture  should 
be  given  the  preference. 

INSECTS   OF   THE   GRAPE. 

Grape  Phylloxera. — The  grape  phylloxera  is  an  insect  native 
to  the  United  States,  and  at  times  has  severely  threatened 


INSECTS  OF  THE  GRAPE  233 

the  grape  industry  in  the  Pacific  coast  regions.  This  insect 
is  a  small  plant  louse,  and  its  life  history  is  very  complicated, 
involving  four  different  forms  of  aphids.  The  four  forms 
may  be  briefly  enumerated  as  (1)  the  root  form,  (2)  the  leaf 
gall  form,  (3)  the  winged  form  and  (4)  the  sexual  form.  The 
root  form  is  the  most  destructive,  and  the  gall  form  is  also 
very  injurious. 

The  principal  means  of  control  lies  in  the  selection  of  resist- 
ant vines.  Since  the  most  destructive  form  of  this  insect  is 
found  on  the  roots,  which  are  protected  in  such  a  way  that  no 
spray  can  be  used,  it  becomes  necessary  to  employ  some  other 
means  of  control.  Carbon  bisulphide,  which  is  a  volatile 
liquid,  heavier  than  air,  has  been  extensively  used.  This 
material  is  the  most  effective  on  light  soils  but  does  not  lend 
itself  to  very  successful  use  on  heavy  clay  soils.  It  is  also 
relatively  expensive.  Carbon  bisulphide  may  be  applied  at 
any  time  other  than  during  the  blooming  and  the  ripening 
season.  Two  applications  usually  give  the  best  results.  To 
apply  the  material  pour  one-half  of  an  ounce  into  a  hole 
about  1  foot  in  depth  and  not  closer  than  1  foot  from  the  vine. 

If  water  is  available  for  irrigation  it  offers  one  of  the  best 
means  of  control  for  this  insect,  which  is  done  by  flooding 
the  ground  to  a  depth  of  about  6  inches  and  allowing  the 
water  to  remain  on  the  soil  for  about  ten  days.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  by  applying  the  water  as  soon  as  the 
vines  cease  active  growth  in  the  fall. 

Flea  Beetle. — The  flea  beetle  is  a  little  insect  which  often 
becomes  serious  on  the  grape.  It  is  a  bluish-green  beetle,  and 
the  chief  damage  it  does  is  to  eat  the  buds  about  the  time  they 
begin  to  swell  in  the  spring.  If  the  beetles  are  very  abundant 
they  often  destroy  all  of  the  buds,  which  greatly  retard  the 
leafing  out  and  in  severe  cases  of  infestation  sometimes  kill 
the  vine.  The  larvae  of  the  insect  hatch  from  the  eggs  about 
the  tune  the  leaves  are  expanding  and  at  once  attack  them, 
eating  out  irregular  holes. 

Where  systematic  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  is  prac- 
tised very  little  damage  results  from  the  flea  beetle. 

Grape  Leaf  Hopper.— The  leaf  hopper  is  often  very  injurious 
in  many  sections  where  grapes  are  grown.  These  insects 


234  THE  GRAPE 

feed  upon  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and  they  often  become 
very  abundant.  Their  injury  causes  small  white  spots  to 
appear  on  the  leaves.  These  spots  are  made  by  the  insect 
sucking  out  the  chlorophyll  from  the  plant.  As  the  amount 
of  injury  increases,  the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  the  fruit  is 
reduced  in  size  and  in  quality.  The  adult  insect  is  about 
|  inch  in  length.  The  wings  are  marked  with  red  and 
yellow.  The  nymphes  are  a  light  yellowish  green  in  color. 
They  feed  in  the  same  way  as  the  adults.  The  insects  come 
in  the  early  spring  and  feed  on  whatever  foliage  is  available 
until  the  grape  leaves  appear. 

Various  devices  and  methods  of  control  are  in  vogue. 
Owing  to  the  jumping  habit  of  the  insect  several  patent 
arrangements  have  been  introduced.  The  use  of  sticky  fly 
paper  is  also  effective.  A  device  made  by  stretching  cloth 
on  wooden  frames  against  which  the  hoppers  strike  is  some- 
times used.  The  cloth  is  painted  with  a  sticky  material 
made  by  mixing  1  quart  of  melted  resin  with  1  pint  of  castor 
oil,  and  as  the  insects  strike  the  cloth  covered  with  this 
material  they  stick  fast  and  are  killed.  Spraying  the  vines 
with  1  pound  of  whale  oil  soap  to  10  gallons  of  water  is  also 
used.  A  10  per  cent,  kerosene  emulsion  is  effective  and  often 
employed.  Several  applications  of  an  insecticide  are  usually 
necessary.  If  the  vineyard  is  thoroughly  cleaned  up  every 
year  many  of  the  hibernating  insects  are  killed  and  therefore 
less  damage  results. 

Grape  Berry  Moth.; — The  grape  berry  moth  is  a  small  moth 
with  a  wing  expanse  of  about  J  inch.  Wormy  grapes  are 
largely  due  to  the  larvae  of  this  moth.  The  injury  done 
by  the  first  and  the  second  brood  is  somewhat  different. 
The  first  generation  larvse  web  the  cluster  of  grapes  together 
either  before  the  blossoms  open  or  soon  after  the  grapes  set. 
The  later  brood,  however,  bores  into  the  green  fruit,  causing 
purplish  spots  to  mark  the  entrance  of  the  insect.  It  is 
obvious  that  if  the  first  brood  is  large  greater  damage  will 
be  done,  since  each  worm  practically  destroys  a  bunch  of 
grapes,  while  the  later  brood  destroys  only  the  berry. 

Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to 
50  gallons  of  water  is  effective  in  destroying  this  insect. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  235 

Where  the  vines  are  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  the  lead 
can  be  added  to  it  and  both  sprayed  on  at  the  same  time. 

A  little  soap  sticker  added  to  the  solution  will  cause  it  to 
adhere  better  to  the  berries.  The  first  spraying  should  be 
given  just  before  the  blossoms  open,  the  second  just  as  the 
grapes  finish  blooming  and  the  third  during  the  early  part 
of  July.  Picking  and  destroying  all  of  the  infested  berries 
will  aid  materially  in  combating  this  insect. 

Grape  Curculio. — The  injury  of  the  grape  curculio  closely 
resembles  that  of  the  grape  berry  moth.  The  grape  curculio 
also  causes  wormy  grapes,  but  the  damage  is  somewhat 
different  from  that  of  grape  berry  moth.  The  adults  are  small 
weevils  which  pass  the  winter  in  or  near  the  vineyards. 
They  usually  hibernate  under  trash  or  rubbish,  and  appear 
in  the  spring  about  the  time  the  grapes  bloom.  The  insects 
feed  on  the  foliage  until  the  grapes  are  about  one-fourth 
grown.  The  adult  then  cuts  a  very  characteristic  crescent- 
shaped  hole  in  the  grape,  under  the  flap  of  which  the  egg  is 
laid.  The  larvae  soon  hatch  and  bore  into  the  pulp,  where  it 
feeds  until  it  reaches  maturity. 

Spraying  the  vines  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2 
pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water  while  the  grapes  are  small  will 
kill  many  of  the  adults.  If  this  procedure  is  followed  out 
very  little  damage  will  result  from  this  insect. 

SPRAYING  OUTLINE   FOR  THE   GRAPE. 

No.  of 

spray.  Time  of  spray.  Spray  materials. 

First  When  shoots  are  8  to  10  inches         4-4-50  Bordeaux. 

long 

Second         Just  before  blooming  4-4-50      Bordeaux     plus    2 

pounds  arsenate  of  lead  to 
50  gallons  of  the  spray. 

Third  Just  after  blossoms  fall  Same  as  second. 

Fourth         Two  weeks  after  third  4-4-50  Bordeaux. 

v 

If  additional  sprayings  are  necessary  use  Bordeaux  mixture. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  two  classes  of  grapes,  and  give  the  sections  of  the  country 
where  each  is  grown. 

2.  Discuss  the  propagation  of  the  grape. 


236  THE  GRAPE 

3.  What  determines  the  length  of  a  grape  cutting? 

4.  In  your  opinion  which  is  the  most  important  method  of  propagating 
the  grape?     Why? 

5.  Why  is  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  important  in  grape  culture? 

6.  What  kind  of  a  soil  does  the  grape  prefer? 

7.  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  soil  and  the  general  location  of  a 
vineyard? 

8.  Discuss  the  most  economical  way  of  planting  the  grape. 

9.  What  determines  the  distance  apart  the  grape  must  be  planted? 

10.  When  should  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  begin?     Why? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  training  of  the  grape? 

12.  Differentiate  between  staking  and  trellising. 

13.  Which  method  is  the  most  economical?     Why? 

14.  What  advantage  has  the  stake  over  the  other  systems  of  training? 

15.  Describe  the  making  of  a  trellis. 

16.  Where  is  the  overhead  system  of  value  and  why  is  it  not  commercially 
profitable? 

17.  Why  is  it  unprofitable  to  pick  grapes  before  they  are  fully 'ripe? 

18.  When  is  the  proper  time  to  pick  grapes?     Why? 

19.  Why  is  it  unprofitable  to  store  grapes? 

20.  What  determines  the  proper  selection  of  varieties? 

21.  Name  and  describe  the  black  rot  of  the  grape.     How  is  it  controlled? 

22.  What  is  the  difference  between  powdery  mildew  and  downy  mildew? 

23.  Why  is  the  grape  phylloxera  so  destructive? 

24.  How  does  the  injury  from  the  grape-berry  moth  differ  from  that  of 
the  curculio? 

25.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  grape. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  POME  FRUITS. 

THE  apple,  pear  and  quince  are  classed  as  pome  or  poma- 
ceous  fruits.  The  flesh  in  the  pome  fruits  consists  of  the 
thickened  calyx  tube,  which  becomes  consolidated  with  the 
ovary  or  core  and  the  edible  part  of  the  pome  is  the  developed 
calyx. 

APPLE. 

The  apple  is  divided  into  several  groups  according  to  the 
several  well-defined  characters  of  the  different  varieties. 
Each  group  is  usually  named  after  the  most  important  apple 
in  that  group,  as,  for  example,  the  Ben  Davis  group  includes 
the  Ben  Davis,  the  Gano  and  the  Black  Ben  Davis  as  well 
as  several  more  varieties  of  that  type.  Other  groups  are 
the  Fameuse  group,  the  Duchess  of  Oldenburg  group,  etc., 
and  each  includes  a  number  of  varieties  which  are  similar 
to  each  other. 

Propagation. — The  apple  is  commonly  propagated  by 
budding,  by  root  grafting  and  by  crown  grafting.  The  root 
grafting  and  the  budding  are  the  most  common  methods  of 
propagation.  The  root  grafting  is  performed  upon  seed- 
ling roots  during  the  winter.  The  grafted  roots  are  then 
tied  in  bundles  of  convenient  size  and  are  stored  in  sand  and 
placed  in  a  cool  cellar.  When  spring  arrives  and  the  soil  can 
be  plowed  the  grafts  are  placed  in  the  nursery  row  about  1 
foot  apart  in  the  rows  and  the  rows  about  3  feet  apart.  The 
tongue  and  whip  graft  is  the  method  commonly  employed 
in  doing  the  root  grafting. 

The  budding  of  the  apple  is  becoming  the  most  popular 
form  of  propagation  during  recent  years.  This  form  of 
propagation  is  employed  upon  the  one-year-old  seedling 
plants  in  the  nursery  row.  The  budding  is  performed  during 
the  late  summer,  usually  in  Julyj  August  and  September. 


238  THE  POME  FRUITS 

The  shield  bud  is  commonly  used,  and  it  is  inserted  into 
the  stock  from  2  to  4  inches  above  the  ground.  After  the 
bud  begins  to  grow  the  old  top  of  the  tree  is  cut  off  and  the 
budded  variety  is  allowed  to  grow  and  to  produce  the  new 
tree. 

Soil. — The  apple  does  the  best  on  a  deep  open  clay  loam. 
The  soil  should  be  well  drained,  either  naturally  or  artificially. 
However,  the  apple  is  very  cosmopolitan  and  can  be  grown 
successfully  on  almost  any  soil  if  it  is  well  provided  with 
available  plant  food.  The  soil  for  the  apple  should,  how- 
ever, be  retentive  of  moisture  and  be  rich  in  plant  food, 
because  it  is  impossible  to  raise  good  fruit  on  poor  soil. 
Sufficient  moisture  can  generally  be  secured  by  mulching  the 
ground  with  either  manure  or  straw  if  water  is  the  limiting 
factor.  Occasionally,  the  newer  soils  in  some  regions  are 
too  rich  in  plant  food,  and  such  soils  sometimes  cause  the 
apple  to  grow  too  rank  and  it  does  not  set  fruit. 

The  subsoil  should  not  be  too  near  the  surface,  especially 
if  it  is  very  hard  and  retentive  of  moisture.  A  subsoil  of 
this  nature  prevents  good  drainage  and  restricts  the  growth 
of  the  roots.  Where  such  a  subsoil  exists,  and  the  trees 
must  be  planted  in  such  a  location,  it  is  well  to  break  up  the 
hard  pan  by  exploding  a  medium  charge  of  dynamite  in 
each  hole.  This  procedure  will  loosen  up  the  soil  so  that 
the  roots  can  penetrate  it  to  a  greater  depth.  It  also  pro- 
vides better  drainage. 

Planting. — The  soil  for  planting  the  apple  should  be  well 
prepared.  The  preparation  should  be  equal  to  that  which 
is  required  for  corn.  The  work  of  planting  the  trees  will 
be  greatly  facilitated  if  the  land  is  furrowed  out  both  ways 
with  a  large  plow  and  the  trees  set  at  the  intersections.  In 
the  setting  of  a  tree  the  hole  should  be  made  large  enough 
to  take  in  all  of  the  roots  without  the  crowding  of  any  of  them. 
The  roots  should  be  spread  out  evenly  on  the  bottom  of  the 
hole.  The  fine  top  soil  should  be  carefully  worked  among 
them  so  as  not  to  leave  any  air  spaces  between  or  under 
the  roots.  The  soil  should  be  pressed  firmly  about  the 
roots,  and  if  it  is  in  the  proper  condition  for  planting  it 
cannot  be  firmed  too  much. 


APPLE  239 

The  time  of  planting  the  trees  varies  with  the  locality. 
In  the  north,  spring  planting  should  always  be  done,  because 
if  the  trees  are  set  in  the  fall  they  are  especially  liable  to 
winter  injury,  and  in  some  cases  are  killed.  In  the  north 
it  usually  becomes  necessary  to  dig  the  trees  from  the 
nursery  row,  and  either  heel  them  in  by  digging  a  hole  in  a 
well-drained  place  and  covering  up  the  trees,  both  root  and 
branch  with  soil,  or  by  packing  them  in  a  cool,  moist  cellar. 
The  covering  up  of  the  trees  with  soil  is  called  heeling  in. 
Only  specially  constructed  cellars  are  adapted  to  the  storing 
of  the  trees  over  winter,  and  heeling  them  in  out  of  doors 
will  usually  give  better  results. 

In  other  more  favorable  localities,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
central  and  the  southern  sections,  where  there  is  very  little 
danger  that  the  trees  will  be  injured  in  the  nursery  row,  they 
are  taken  directly  from  the  nursery  and  set  out  in  their  per- 
manent location  in  the  spring.  Where  the  trees  are  heeled 
in  for  the  winter  they  should  be  set  out  just  as  soon  in  the 
spring  as  the  ground  can  be  prepared  and  the  danger  of 
severe  freezing  is  past. 

Spring  planting  seems  to  be  preferable  in  most  of  the 
fruit-growing  sections,  principally  because  the  tree  soon 
starts  into  growth  after  it  is  planted.  This  early  growth  of 
the  tree  after  it  is  set  in  the  orchard  is  a  decided  advantage 
to  it.  The  timely  establishment  of  a  tree  in  the  soil  prevents 
it  from  being  exposed  to  the  unfavorable  elements  of  the 
weather  and  the  chances  are  greater  for  its  success. 

The  fall  planting  of  trees  is  practised  in  some  fruit-grow- 
ing regions.  This  method  can  be  followed  in  those  sections 
in  which  the  winters  do  not  get  too  severe  and  where  there  is 
plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil  at  planting  time.  In  regions 
where  the  weather  is  severe  the  trees  are  sometimes  laid 
on  the  ground  and  covered  with  some  kind  of  a  mulch. 
This  procedure  is  expensive,  it  makes  considerable  addi- 
tional labor,  and  it  is  not.  generally  recommended.  Fall 
planting  has  one  advantage  where  it  can  be  practised,  in 
that  the  work  can  be  done  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  general 
farm  work  is  not  so  pressing.  Usually  more  individual 
attention  is  given  to  the  trees  if  they  are  planted  in  the  fall. 


240  THE  POME  FRUITS 

The  depth  to  which  a  tree  should  be  planted  depends  upon 
the  kind  of  a  tree,  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  locality. 
In  the  most  favorable  locations  a  tree  should  be  set  about 

4  inches  deeper  than  it  grew  in  the  nursery  row.     In  very 
dry  and  very  light  soils  a  tree  can  be  set  perhaps  as  deep  as 
10  inches.     On  slopes  of  hills  a  tree  must  be  set  at  least 

5  or  6  inches  deeper  than  it  stood  in  the  nursery  because  of 
the  slope  of  the  land.     However,  where  a  good  site  with  fer- 
tile rich  soil  is  selected,  deep  planting  is  not  very  desirable, 
and  usually  4  inches  deeper  than  the  tree  grew  in  the  nursery 
row  is  preferable. 

Distance  Apart  to  Plant. — The  distance  the  apple  should 
be  planted  depends  upon  the  variety,  the  climate  and  the 
soil.  In  localities  where  the  conditions  are  favorable  for 
growing  the  apple  it  should  be  set  farther  apart  than  where 
the  conditions  are  unfavorable.  Likewise  the  wide  spread- 
ing varieties  should  be  set  farther  apart  than  the  compact, 
upright  growing  kinds.  The  short-lived  classes  can  be  set 
closer  than  the  longer-lived  varieties.  In  the  favorable 
apple-growing  regions  of  the  east  the  distance  varies  from 
30  to  40  feet  apart,  while  in  some  of  the  Pacific  coast  regions 
where  the  apple  does  not  grow  so  large  the  trees  are  set 
from  25  to  30  feet  apart. 

System  of  Planting. — There  are  several  methods  of  planting 
trees,  but  the  three  most  common  systems  are  the  square, 
the  quincunx  and  the  hexagonal.  The  lay  of  the  land  and 
the  size  of  the  orchard  determine  somewhat  the  system 
which  is  adopted.  It  is  always  important  to  have  the  rows 
run  straight  both  ways,  since  the  orchard  looks  better  and 
it  can  be  cared  for  more  easily.  In  the  laying  out  of  an 
orchard  the  first  thing  is  to  establish  a  base  line  which  should 
be  determined  by  a  surveyor  when  it  is  possible.  All  work 
should  proceed  from  this  base  line. 

The  square  system  is  most  often  used  chiefly  from  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  others.  It  consists  in  planting  trees  at  each 
corner  of  a  square.  This  system  does  not  require  so  many 
trees  to  the  acre;  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  easily  laid 
out,  it  permits  easy  cultivation  and  it  allows  for  systematic 
thinning  should  the  trees  become  crowded  later  in  life. 


APPLE  241 

The  quincunx  system  allows  the  planting  of  many  more 
trees  to  the  acre  than  the  square  system.  This  system 
is  like  the  square  with  the  addition  of  a  tree  in  the  center 
of  each  square.  This  plan  introduces  the  use  of  fillers  and 
provides  for  a  well-laid-out  orchard  when  the  fillers  are 
removed. 


FIG.  103. — Square  system  of  planting  an  orchard.     Placing  the  trees  30  by 
30  feet  apart  gives  49  trees  to  the  acre. 

The  hexagonal  system  uses  about  15  per  cent,  more  trees 
than  the  square  system.  In  this  system  each  tree  stands  in 
the  center  of  a  hexagon  formed  by  six  trees,  all  equal  dis- 
tance from  each  other.  It  has  the  advantage  of  distrib- 
uting the  trees  more  evenly  over  the  ground  than  any  other 
system,  but  the  cultivation  of  the  trees  is  more  difficult. 
This  method  does  not  provide  any  logical  way  of  thinning 
out  of  any  trees  later  in  the  life  of  the  orchard. 

Cultivation. — Young  trees  should  be  well  cultivated  during 
the  early  part  of  the  growing  season,  but  this  operation 
should  be  stopped  during  the  late  summer  or  early  fall  so 
the  trees  will  ripen  up  their  wood  before  winter. 
16 


242 


THE  POME  FRUITS 


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FIG.    104. — Quincunx  system  of  planting  an  orchard.     Placing  the  trees 
30  by  30  feet  apart  gives  85  trees  to  the  acre. 


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FIG.   105. — Hexagonal  system  of  planting  an  orchard.     Placing  the  trees 
30  by  30  feet  apart  gives  55  trees  to  the  acre. 


APPLE  243 

Occasionally  some  crop  like  the  potato,  squash,  cabbage 
or  tomato  can  be  planted  between  the  trees,  which  not 
only  produces  an  income  from  the  land  but  at  the  same 
time  necessitates  good  and  thorough  cultivation  of  the  ground. 
The  practice  of  intercropping  is  not  always  recommended. 
Sometimes  the  orchard  is  badly  neglected,  unless  intercrop- 
ping is  practised,  and  it  is  better  for  the  trees  to  have  a  culti- 
vated crop  growing  between  them  than  to  have  the  soil  filled 
with  weeds. 

After  the  trees  begin  to  bear  it  is  sometimes  advisable 
to  seed  the  land  down  with  clover,  which  should  be  plowed 
under  every  two  or  three  years  and  the  soil  cultivated  the 
year  the  sod  is  turned  under.  Occasionally  the  orchard  is 
seeded  down  with  blue  grass.  Under  some  conditions  this 
practice  is  permissible,  as,  for  example,  on  steep  slopes.  In 
sodded  orchards  the  trees  should  be  heavily  mulched  by 
placing  straw  or  manure  1  foot  or  more  deep  around  them 
to  the  limit  of  the  drip  of  the  branches.  Occasionally  such 
orchards  become  sod-bound  and  must  be  cultivated. 

Mulching. — The  advantage  of  a  mulch  around  a  tree  is  not 
generally  appreciated.  A  mulch  will  check  evaporation 
and  will  prevent  the  running  off  of  the  water.  It  permits 
the  water  to  soak  into  the  soil  and  helps  to  equalize  the  soil 
moisture  throughout  the  growing  season.  In  dry  locations 
it  is  of  the  greatest  assistance  and  its  use  makes  success  pos- 
sible with  many  varieties  of  apples.  A  mulch  is  especially 
desirable  on  hilly  land  where  cultivation  is  impossible.  It 
is  likewise  valuable  to  mulch  trees  on  sandy  soil  and  on 
southern  exposures.  If  the  trees  are  set  in  sod  and  culti- 
vation is  impossible  a  mulch  is  always  desirable. 

The  mulch  not  only  regulates  the  moisture  supply  of  the 
soil  but  it  is  of  great  value  because  it  continuously  adds 
plant  food  to  the  growing  tree.  The  plant  food  is  supplied 
by  the  gradual  decay  of  the  mulching  material.  When  the 
conditions  warrant  it  a  tree  will  do  the  best  if  the  mulching 
material  is  spaded  under  and  incorporated  with  the  soil. 

Pruning. — The  apple  bears  its  fruit  on  short  branches 
called  spurs.  The  removal  of  wood  bearing  these  spurs 
naturally  reduces  the  yield  of  fruit.  Pruning,  therefore, 


244  THE  POME  FRUITS 

offers  a  means  for  thinning  the  fruit,  and  a  profitable  way  of 
securing  good  quality. 

The  apple  should  be  headed  low  and  the  lower  limbs  should 
be  started  18  to  24  inches  from  the  ground.  This  is  done 
by  pruning  the  growing  tree  heavily  and  topping  it  at  the 
point  where  the  head  is  to  be  formed.  When  a  number  of 
branches  start,  remove  all  of  them  except  three  or  four  of 
the  largest  to  form  the  framework  of  the  trees,  since  this  is 
an  ideal  number.  These  should  be  distributed  along  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  and  not  come  from  one  point.  Never 
allow  two  branches  to  form  a  fork  in  a  tree.  The  branches 
forming  the  framework  of  the  tree  should  be  cut  back  to 
about  one  foot  in  length  the  first  year  and  all  other  branches 
entirely  removed.  Continue  to  cut  back  all  branches  each 
year  until  a  uniform  and  symmetrical  head  is  formed. 

As  the  tree  grows  older  and  after  bearing  begins,  less 
pruning  is  needed  and  thinning  out  of  the  surplus  wood  is 
usually  sufficient.  If  systematic  pruning  has  been  done 
during  the  early  stages  no  severe  pruning  will  be  needed 
after  the  tree  is  mature. 

Harvesting. — The  apple  should  be  harvested  carefully. 
Too  early  picking  sacrifices  both  color  and  quality,  while  too 
late  picking  results  in  loss  of  keeping  qualities  and  sometimes 
a  loss  from  wind.  The  best  time,  then,  for  picking  the  apple 
is  when  it  is  well  grown  and  fully  colored,  but  still  hard  and 
firm.  This  condition  is  known  as  the  hard  ripe  stage.  The 
seeds  are  colored  brown  and  the  stem  of  the  fruit  separates 
readily  from  the  spur. 

The  apple  should  be  picked  carefully  and  the  fruit  should 
not  be  pinched  in  picking.  The  fruit  should  never  be 
removed  from  the  tree  by  a  straight  pull  as  this  tends  to 
either  pull  the  stem  out  or  break  off  the  fruit  spur.  It 
should  be  carefully  picked  and  handled  and  never  thrown 
carelessly  into  the  picking  vessel  or  from  one  receptacle 
to  another.  The  bruising  of  the  flesh  or  injuring  of  the  skin 
should  be  avoided. 

The  fruit  should  be  placed  in  the  shade  of  a  tree  as  soon 
as  it  is  picked  and  sent  to  the  packing  house  in  a  short  time. 


APPLE 


245 


Packing. — The  apple  is  either  packed  in  the  bushel  box 
or  the  barrel.  The  apple  box  is  used  the  most  extensively 
in  the  northwestern  fruit-growing  districts,  although  the 
eastern  regions  are  using  the  box  to  a  limited  extent.  The 
barrel  is  the  most  popular  vessel  in  the  central  west  and 
in  the  eastern  fruit-growing  regions.  The  apple  barrel 
holds  about  three  bushels.  The  distance  to  the  market 
regulates  to  a  certain  degree  the  vessel  which  is  used.  As 
a  rule  the  box  is  used  where  only  very  fancy  fruit  is  packed, 
and  higher  prices  must  be  obtained  for  it,  because  of  the 
extra  cost  in  packing  and  shipping. 


FIG.  106. — Apples  well  packed  in  different  styles.     (Wilkinson.) 

Every  package  should  be  clean,  uniform  in  size  and  color, 
true  to  the  grade  throughout  and  have  sufficient  compres- 
sion to  avoid  looseness  in  transit.  Each  package  should  be 
properly  labelled,  which  should  contain  the  varietal  name 
and  the  name  and  address  of  either  the  individual  or  the 
company  packing  the  fiuit. 

The  fruit  should  be  carefully  graded,  both  as  to  uniformity 
and  color.  All  poorly  colored  or  off-type  apples  should  be 
discarded  from  the  good  pack.  Any  bruised  fruit  or  apples 
which  have  their  stems  pulled  out  should  not  be  included, 


246  THE  POME  FRUITS 

because  they  will  not  keep  and  only  aid  in  destroying  the 
value  of  the  pack. 

As  soon  as  the  apples  are  packed,  they  should  be  precooled 
and  stored  in  a  cold-storage  plant.  For  home  use  a  cool 
cellar  is  often  satisfactory.  However,  in  any  event  the 
apples  must  not  be  exposed  to  heat  and  sun,  because  this 
causes  them  to  ripen  up  quickly  and  deteriorate  in  a  short 
time. 

Varieties. — There  are  a  great  number  of  varieties  of  apples. 
Each  region  is  adapted  to  the  growing  of  certain  well-defined 
groups  of  apples.  The  varieties  that  are  found  to  be  the 
most  profitable  by  experienced  growers  are  usually  the 
popular  sorts  in  the  various  districts.  There  is  no  way  of 
knowing  exactly  what  variety  will  do  the  best  in  any  one 
locality,  and  therefore  the  variety  should  be  selected  accord- 
ing to  the  experience  of  some  progressive  grower  in  each  region. 
•  The  selection  of  varieties  will  depend  upon  whether  they 
are  for  home  or  for  commercial  use.  If  they  are  wanted  for 
the  home  a  larger  number  of  varieties  can  be  selected,  cover- 
ing a  longer  ripening  period.  If  the  varieties  are  for  com- 
mercial planting,  it  is  always  advisable  to  select  only  four  or 
five  good  standard  sorts.  The  selection  of  only  a  few  varie- 
ties for  commercial  planting  is  necessary,  because  the  grower 
wants  to  have  his  crop  ripen  up  at  the  same  time  and  also  to 
have  a  sufficient  quantity  of  one  kind  to  be  profitable.  All 
buyers  of  fruit  demand  a  quantity  of  a  few  varieties  and 
consequently  they  will  not  buy  a  few  bushels  of  a  number  of 
varieties. 

Some  varieties  are  very  cosmopolitan  and  can  be  adjusted 
to  many  different  regions,  while  other  varieties  are  adapted 
only  to  limited  areas  and  they  cannot  be  grown  out  of  these 
well-defined  places.  The  Ben  Davis,  Baldwin,  Duchess  of 
Oldenburg  and  several  others  can  be  grown  over  a  great  area, 
while  the  Yellow  Newton  and  some  other  varieties  can  only 
be  grown  in  certain  regions. 

Some  of  the  most  profitable  varieties  are  the  Baldwin, 
Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Winesap,  Greening,  Grimes,  Jonathan, 
Missouri  Pippin,  Spy,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Tolman  Sweet, 
Wealthy  and  a  few  others. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  APPLE  247 


DISEASES  OF  THE  APPLE. 

The  apple  is  subject  to  attack  by  several  insects  as  well  as 
several  diseases,  and  these  troubles  cause  great  loss  yearly. 
However,  most  of  them  can  easily  be  controlled  if  the  proper 
treatment  is  given. 

The  most  common  disease  which  is  found  in  almost  every 
apple-growing  district  is  the  so-called  rot.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  rot,  namely,  the  black  rot,  the  brown  rot  and  the 
bitter  rot. 

Black  Rot.— The  black  rot  not  only  affects  the  fruit,  but 
it  also  produces  cankers  on  the  branches  and  the  limbs  of 
the  tree.  The  cankers  serve  as  a  continual  source  of  infec- 
tion to  the  fruit.  They  also  weaken  the  tree  and  finally 
cause  its  death.  This  fungous  disease  is  first  detected  by  a 
small  brownish  spot  on  the  fruit,  which  spreads  rapidly, 
when  favorable  conditions  exist,  until  the  whole  fruit  is 
involved.  This  rot  attacks  the  fruit  on  the  trees  as  well  as 
in  storage. 

Brown  Rot. — The  brown  rot  is  sometimes  known  as  fruit 
mould  or  ripe  rot,  and  it  is  found  not  only  on  the  apple,  but 
it  is  abundant  on  the  peach  and  the  plum.  This  disease 
spreads  very  rapidly  in  damp,  muggy  weather  and  it  is  very 
disastrous.  The  disease  first  appears  as  a  small,  dark  brown 
spot.  This  spot  increases  in  extent  until  the  whole  fruit  is 
affected.  This  fungus  not  only  causes  considerable  damage 
to  the  fruit  on  the  tree,  but  it  also  affects  the  fruit  in  ship- 
ment and  on  the  market.  The  spores  or  fruiting  bodies 
sometimes  lodge  on  the  fruit,  where  they  germinate  and  grow 
during  transit  and  the  crop  reaches  the  market  in  a  poor 
condition. 

Bitter  Rot. — The  bitter  rot  is  so  named  because  the  affected 
tissue  has  a  bitter  taste.  The  bitterness  varies  from  an 
exceedingly  bitter  quality  to  that  which  can  scarcely  be 
identified.  It  is  also  called  dry  rot.  This  disease  is  easily 
recognized  by  characteristic  black,  circular  and  sharply 
margined  spots,  varying  in  size  from  J  inch  or  more  in 
diameter.  The  spots  become  somewhat  depressed  by  the 


248  THE  POME  FRUITS 

shrinkage  of  the  affected  tissue,  and  finally  become  leathery 
or  corky  in  texture. 

The  rots  can  all  be  effectively  controlled  by  the  use  of  4-4-50 
Bordeaux  mixture,  applied  to  the  plant  at  intervals  varying 
with  the  season  and  the  weather.  In  sections  where  the  fruit 
is  severely  attacked  by  the  rots,  spraying  will  have  to  be  done 
more  often,  especially  in  seasons  of  considerable  rainfall. 
If  the  first  spray  has  been  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  one  or  two 
additional  sprayings  given  during  the  latter  part  of  July 
and  the  early  part  of  August  will  be  effective  in  controlling 
the  rots.  The  number  of  sprays  must  be  determined  by 
the  individual  and  the  section  of  the  country  in  which  he  is 
located. 

Apple  Scab. — The  scab  is  one  of  the  worst  foes  of  the  apple, 
and  it  is  quite  generally  distributed. over  the  country,  in  the 
sections  where  apples  and  pears  are  grown.  The  loss  due 
to  this  disease  is  not  easily  estimated.  The  fungus  is  more 
or  less  superficial,  and  unless  the  fruit  is  badly  infected  it 
sometimes  reaches  the  market,  but  is  sold  at  greatly  reduced 
prices.  This  disease  is  commonly  found  on  the  fruit  and  the 
leaves,  but  it  also  attacks  the  leaf  stalks,  the  flowers  and  the 
smaller  twigs.  The  spots  are  usually  more  abundant  on 
the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  disease  appears  as  small, 
irregular,  almost  circular  spots  on  the  fruit,  giving  the 
characteristic  familiar  scabby  appearance.  In  extreme  cases 
of  infestation  the  fruit  becomes  puckered  up  and  takes  on  all 
kinds  of  abnormal  and  irregular  shapes.  There  are  probably 
no  varieties  of  apples  or  pears  which  are  entirely  free  from 
the  scab. 

Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime  sulphur  solution  are  both 
effective  in  controlling  this  disease.  The  strength  of  Bor- 
deaux mixture  which  should  be  used  is  determined  by  the 
susceptibility  of  the  variety  to  the  spray  injury.  The 
strength  varies  from  a  2-4-50  to  a  5-5-50  mixture.  If  a 
variety  is  very  susceptible  to  Bordeaux  mixture,  use  lime 
sulphur,  diluted  1  gallon  of  the  concentrated  commercial 
lime  sulphur  solution  to  35  gallons  of  water. 

Fly  Speck  or  Sooty  Blotch. — The  fly  speck  or  sooty  blotch 
is  found  on  the  apple  in  many  sections.  At  first  it  was 


DISEASES  OF  THE  APPLE  249 

thought  the  fly  speck  and  sooty  blotch  were  two  separate 
and  distinct  diseases,  but  further  study  has  revealed  the 
fact  that  the  fly  speck  and  the  sooty  blotch  are  stages  of 
the  same  fungus.  This  disease  is  occasionally  found  on  the 
pear.  Fly  speck  disease  is  quite  superficial,  and  it  appears  as 
a  number  of  small  black  specks,  quite  regular  in  outline. 
Each  individual  spot  is  about  the  size  of  a  small  pin  head, 
and  in  the  earlier  stage  it  is  still  much  smaller.  A  mass  of 
the  fungus  gives  the  fruit  the  appearance  of  being  covered 


FIG.  107. — The  apple  blotch. 

with  soot.  So  far  as  injuring  the  fruit  is  concerned  none 
occurs,  but  the  discolored  fruit  is  hard  to  sell,  and  conse- 
quently reduces  the  profits.  Spraying  for  the  scab  will  be 
effective  in  controlling  the  fly  speck. 

Fire  Blight. — The  fire  blight  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
diseases  of  the  apple.  It  also  is  very  injurious  to  the  pear. 
It  is  a  contagious  disease  of  bacterial  origin.  The  fire 
blight  is  caused  by  very  small  organisms  called  bacteria. 
They  are  rod-shaped  and  motile.  They  multiply  by  simply 
dividing  and  they  increase  very  rapidly.  Immense  num- 


250  THE  POME  FRUITS 

bers  of  bacteria  are  produced  in  a  remarkably  short  time 
and  they  soon  completely  fill  the  infected  parts.  The  bac- 
teria live  almost  entirely  in  the  sappy  portion  of  the  bark. 

The  blight  does  not  attack  the  fruit,  but  confines  its 
ravages  to  the  limbs  and  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  The  disease 
is  first  visible  on  the  tips  of  the  younger  twigs,  which  become 
dried  up  and  later  turn  black.  It  spreads  rapidly  and 
often  wipes  out  entire  orchards  in  a  short  time,  when  it  is 
not  fought  vigorously. 

The  disease  is  called  fire  blight  because  of  the  character- 
istic appearance  of  the  foliage.  It  is  also  known  as  twig  blight 
because  it  is  usually  first  detected  on  the  younger  twigs. 
The  disease  gains  entrance  in  various  ways,  as  for  example, 
through  wounds  left  from  pruning,  and  through  insects 
visiting  blooms  during  pollination.  However,  any  abra- 
sion or  wound  on  the  bark  of  a  tree  gives  a  point  of  vantage 
for  the  entrance  of  the  bacteria.  There  is  only  one  known 
method  of  control  for  this  trouble,  and  that  is  to  cut  out 
all  cankers  on  the  limbs  and  destroy  them  by  burning.  All 
infested  twigs  should  be  cut  off  and  destroyed  as  soon  as  they 
appear.  When  the  infected  wood  is  removed  see  that  the 
pruning  tools  are  thoroughly  sterilized  by  dippling  them  in 
a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  after  each  cut.  Spraying 
is  of  no  avail  in  controlling  the  fire  blight. 

INSECTS  OF  THE  APPLE. 

Codling  Moth. — The  larvse  of  this  insect  cause  wormy 
apples  and  it  is  one  of  the  worst  foes  of  the  plant.  The 
adult  is  a  small,  pale  gray  moth  with  brownish  spots  near 
the  end  of  the  forewings.  Surrounding  these  spots  on  the 
wings  is  an  irregular  golden  band.  The  larva  of  the  moth 
is  the  common  apple  worm,  which  is  found  feeding  in  the 
core  of  the  apple.  It  is  pinkish  in  color  and  lives  in  the 
apple  about  twenty  days,  eating  the  fruit  and  growing  to  a 
length  of  about  f  of  an  inch.  When  the  larva  is  full  grown  it 
crawls  out  and  seeks  a  place  in  which  to  spin  its  cocoon. 

The  moth  passes  the  winter  in  the  larval  stage  in  a  small 


INSECTS  OF  THE  APPLE  251 

silken  cocoon,  either  under  pieces  of  bark  or  in  some  other 
convenient  place  which  affords  protection,  in  or  near  apple 
trees.  These  larvae  change  to  pupa  and  the  moths  emerge 
in  the  spring.  Soon  after  the  emergence  of  the  moth,  egg 
laying  begins. 

In  order  to  control  the  codling  moth  the  life  history  must 
be  known.  The  growers,  in  the  different  sections,  must 
know  the  time  the  moths  begin  to  lay  their  eggs  so  that 
adequate  and  effective  control  methods  can  be  'used.  After 
the  worm  is  once  inside  of  the  apple  it  is  proof  against  any 
remedy.  The  poison  must  necessarily  be  applied  to  the  fruit 
before  the  larva  enters  it,  if  it  is  to  be  of  any  value. 


FIG.  108. — Codling  moth,  natural  size.     (Slingerland.) 

There  are  two  and  in  some  sections  a  partial  third  brood 
of  the  codling  moth,  and  remedial  measures  must  be  used 
against  every  brood. 

Since  the  larvae  eat  the  fruit,  it  is  necessary  to  use  some 
stomach  poison.  The  poison  almost  universally  employed 
against  this  insect  is  the  arsenate  of  lead.  Three  sprays  are 
usually  necessary.  The  first  one  should  be  given  just  as  the 
petals  are  falling,  the  second  one  about  two  weeks  after  the 
first  and  the  third  later  in  the  summer,  the  time  ranging 
from  July  1  to  August  10,  depending  upon  the  locality.  The 


252 


THE  POME  FRUITS 


strength  of  the  poisoned  solution  is  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of 
lead  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

San  Jose  Scale. — The  San  Jose  scale  is  a  destructive  insect 
in  several  of  the  fruit-growing  sections.  It  is  found  on  many 
of  the  economic  plants  as  well  as  on  many  of  the  ornamentals. 
The  apple  seems  to  be  its  preference  as  a  food  plant,  but 
it  is  found  on  the  pear,  quince,  gooseberry  and  osage  orange, 
as  well  as  on  other  plants.  The  ease  with  which  it  is  dis- 
tributed on  nursery  stock  and  its  great  power  of  reproduc- 


FIG.  109. — San  Jose  scale  and  scab  on  the  fruit  of  the  apple. 

tion  make  its  extermination  in  any  locality  practically 
impossible.  Probably  no  other  scale  insect  has  ever  been  as 
injurious  to  plants  as  the  San  Jose.  The  San  Jose  scale 
attacks  all  parts  of  the  plant.  Its  presence  can  usually  be 
detected  by  the  reddish  discolorations  on  the  back  of  leaves 
and  on  the  skin  of  fruits. 

The  insect  is  orange  yellow  in  color  and  is  covered  with 
a  grayish  waxy  secretion  called  the  scale.  The  female 
lives  under  this  covering  and  gives  birth  to  living  young 


INSECTS  OF  THE  APPLE 


253 


instead  of  laying  eggs.  Owing  to  the  great  rapidity  with 
which  the  scale  multiplies  very  thorough  treatment  is 
imperative.  At  the  close  of  a  growing  season,  all  stages  of 
the  scale  can  be  found  on  an  infested  tree.  The  mortality 
of  the  older  and  the  younger  scales  is  always  great  and  the 
half-grown  insects  are  the  individuals  that  usually  survive 
the  winter  in  the  best  shape  and  carry  on  the-  reproduction 
the  following  year. 


FIG.  110. — San  Jose  scale  on  the  apple. 
No.  180.) 


(From  Illinois  Circular, 


The  San  Jose  scale  has  a  number  of  natural  enemies,  but 
owing  to  its  great  ability  to  reproduce  so  rapidly  it  does 
great  damage  in  spite  of  its  natural  parasites. 

Each  grower  should  become  familiar  with  the  appearance 


254  THE  POME  FRUITS 

of  the  San  Jose  scale,  and  should  learn  to  detect  its  presence 
so  that  remedial  measures  can  be  adopted.  The  lime  sul- 
phur wash  is  the  best-known  remedy,  and  perhaps  the  most 
effective,  although  kerosene  emulsion  as  well  as  several 
other  oil  sprays  will  kill  the  insect.  The  best  time  to  spray 
for  the  San  Jose  is  in  the  spring,  just  before  the  buds  swell. 
Commercial  lime  sulphur  diluted  1  gallon  to  8  or  10  gallons 
of  water  is  the  proper  strength  of  the  spray.  Every  part 
of  the  tree  should  be  thoroughly  coated  with  the  spray 
material.  If  the  infestation  is  very  bad,  spraying  in  the 
fall  will  aid  materially  in  reducing  the  damage  done  by 
the  insect. 

Canker  Worm. — The  canker  worm  has  for  a  long  time  been 
an  enemy  of  the  apple,  as  well  as  many  of  the  shade  trees. 
The  canker  worms  are  among  the  most  common  of  the 
loopers,  or  measuring  worms,  and  they  are  the  larvae  of  two 
nearly  related  species  of  moths,  very  similar  in  both  habits 
and  appearance.  They  defoliate  the  trees  early  in  the  spring. 

The  two  canker  worms  are  known  as  the  fall  canker  worm 
and  the  spring  canker  worm.  These  insects  are  so  named 
because  of  the  time  at  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  spring 
worm  lays  its  eggs  in  the  spring,  and  the  fall  worm  lays  its 
eggs  in  the  fall. 

The  worms  do  considerable  damage  in  sections  where  they 
occur  and  they  seem  to  be  very  widely  distributed.  In  fact, 
the  worms  have  been  reported  as  being  found  in  all  sections 
of  the  United  States,  except  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  south 
of  New  Jersey.  These  worms  are  reported  to  be  somewhat 
injurious  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  adult  of  both  the  spring  and  the  fall  canker  worm  is 
a  moth.  The  females  of  both  are  wingless,  while  the  males 
of  both  are  winged.  The  larvae  of  both  species  are  quite 
similar  and  vary  from  f  to  1  inch  in  length.  They  are  dark, 
greenish-olive  or  black  in  color  with  white  stripes  along  the 
sides. 

The  canker  worms  can  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  2 
pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water,  just  before 
the  blossoms  open  and  by  repeating  the  same  spray  just 


INSECTS  OF  THE  APPLE  255 

after  the  petals  have  fallen.  If  spraying  is  not  advisable, 
the  females  may  be  prevented  from  crawling  up  the  trees, 
by  circling  the  trunks  with  a  band  of  sticky  substance,  such 
as  tanglefoot  or  some  other  material. 

Tent  Caterpillar. — The  tent  caterpillar  is  common  in 
almost  every  garden,  and  it  is  found  in  many  commercial 
orchards.  It  is  detected  by  the  webs  of  the  insect  adorning 
the  apple  as  well  as  the  cherry  and  other  fruit  trees.  This 
insect  takes  its  name  from  these  webs  which  are  made  at 
the  intersection  of  the  limbs.  At  first  the  webs  are  quite 
small,  but  they  gradually  increase  in  size  as  the  larvae  grow, 
and  in  time  form  a  shelter  for  the  insects  resembling  a  tenc. 

The  adult  insect  is  a  moth,  reddish  brown  in  color  and 
having  two  parallel  white  bands  extending  obliquely  across 
the  forewings.  Soon  after  the  mating  of  the  sexes,  the 
females  lay  about  two  hundred  eggs  in  an  egg  mass,  which 
is  covered  with  a  light  brown,  frothy  glue.  The  little 
caterpillars  hatch  just  as  the  leaf  buds  are  expanding  in  the 
spring.  The  worms  from  a  single  egg  mass  cooperate  in 
spinning  the  tent,  which  furnishes  them  shelter  at  night 
and  during  cold  weather.  When  the  caterpillar  attains  its 
growth  it  wanders  off,  where  it  spins  a  cocoon,  and  about 
three  weeks  later  the  adult  moth  emerges.  This  insect  would, 
in  all  probability,  be  more  injurious  than  it  is,  if  it  were  not 
for  the  numerous  parasites  which  attack  it,  thus  reducing 
its  numbers. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  control  is  to  cut  out  and  destroy 
the  webs  or  tents  as  soon  as  they  are  detected.  If  a  cold, 
damp  day  is  selected,  practically  all  of  the  caterpillars  will 
be  in  the  nest  and  they  can  easily  be  burned  or  sprayed  with 
pure  kerosene.  Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  the  same 
as  for  the  codling  moth,  is  also  effective  in  killing  the  worms. 

In  general  the  above  insects  include  all  that  are  of  any 
consequence,  especially  the  most  common  forms.  There  are, 
however,  several  other  less  important  ones,  but  in  general 
all  of  them  can  be  controlled  by  spraying. 


256  THE  POME  FRUITS 

SPRAYING  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  APPLE. 

No.  of 

spray.  Time  to  spray.  Spray  materials. 

First  Just  before  the  buds  swell  in  Commercial  lime  sulphur  di- 

the  spring  "  luted  1  to  8. 

Second  Just  as  buds  show  pink  Commercial  lime  sulphur  di- 

luted 1  to  35  plus  2  pounds 
arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gal- 
lons of  spray. 

Third  Just  as  petals  are  falling  Same  as  second  spray. 

Fourth         Three  weeks  after  third  spray  Same  as  second  spray. 

Fifth  About  July  15  to  August  1  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture 

plus  2  pounds  arsenate  of 
lead  to  50  gallons  of  water, 
or  commercial  lime  sul- 
phur 1  gallon  to  35  gallons 
of  water  plus  2  pounds 
arsenate  of  lead  to  50 
gallons  of  spray. 

PEAR. 

The  pear  has  been  commercially  important  for  many 
years.  It  has  been  grown  in  this  country  since  the  time 
of  the  earliest  settlers  and  within  recent  years  large  plantings 
have  been  made  over  the  Eastern  and  Central  States  as 
well  as  in  the  northern  regions.  The  pear  has  reached  great 
importance  in  California  and  a  large  acreage  is  planted  in 
that  region. 

The  pear  has  been  developed  from  the  wild  pear  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  In  its  native  state  the  fruit  is  hard  and  inferior, 
but  under  cultivation  it  has  become  edible  and  delicious. 

Propagation. — The  pear  is  propagated  in  the  same  way 
as  the  apple,  that  is,  root  grafted  in  the  winter,  budded  in 
the  summer  or  crown  grafted  in  the  field.  In  some  regions 
the  pear  is  dwarfed  and  this  is  accomplished  by  grafting  the 
pear  on  quince  roots.  This  method  of  propagating  the  pear 
causes  the  tree  to  grow  smaller  and  produces  the  dwarf  pear. 
The  dwarf  trees  have  no  particular  advantage  over  the 
standard  ones.  However,  the  fruit  can  usually  be  harvested 
with  greater  ease  on  the  smaller  tree  and  a  greater  number 
of  trees  can  be  planted  to  an  acre.  Dwarf  pear  trees  usually 
fruit  when  quite  young,  sometimes  when  they  are  only  three 
years  old.  The  dwarf  tree  must  be  pruned  systematically 


PEAR  257 

every  year,  in  order  to  keep  it  in  a  compact  form  and  to 
prevent  it  from  becoming  too  straggly.  They  usually  require 
more  severe  pruning  than  the  standard  trees. 

Soil. — The  pear  requires  a  rich,  well-drained  soil.  It, 
however,  thrives  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  it  does  the  best 
on  a  rather  porous  clay  subsoil.  Usually  the  pear  can  be 
grown  with  a  considerable  degree  of  success  in  almost  any 
soil  in  which  the  apple  thrives.  The  pear  is  usually  short- 
lived on  a  loose  soil  of  open  texture. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  sometimes 
dangerous  in  the  growing  of  the  pear.  It  has  been  learned 
that  fire  blight  is  especially  troublesome  when  the  tree 
makes  too  rapid  a  growth  and  it  is  the  practice  of  many 
growers  to  keep  the  land  in  sod  to  prevent  too  much  new 
wood  from  being  formed.  However,  the  pear  orchard 
must  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  firmly  sod-bound,  so 
that  the  trees  cannot  make  a  reasonable  growth.  In  case 
the  trees  do  become  sod-bound,  it  is  advisable  to  plow 
the  orchard  and  to  cultivate  it  during  the  early  part  of  the 
season  and  again  seed  it  down  to  grass.  Nitrogenous  cover 
crops  should  usually  be  avoided  and  the  most  attention 
given  to  the  use  of  potash  and  of  phosphoric  acid  fertilizers. 

Planting. — The  planting  of  the  pear  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  apple.  The  chief  point  of  difference  between  the 
two  fruits  is  the  distance  apart  the  trees  are  set.  The 
pear,  as  a  rule,  is  a  more  upright  growing  tree  than  the 
apple  and  the  trees  can  be  planted  closer  together.  The 
standard  pears  are  generally  planted  15  by  30  feet,  that  is 
the  rows  are  30  feet  apart  and  the  trees  15  feet  apart  in  the 
rows.  The  trees  when  they  are  planted  this  distance  are 
allowed  to  grow  until  they  interfere  with  each  other,  and 
then  each  alternate  tree  in  the  row  is  cut  out.  In  other 
sections  the  trees  are  planted  20  feet  apart  each  way  and 
this  method  is  satisfactory  where  the  proper  varieties  are 
selected.  The  dwarf  trees  are  planted  10  by  10  feet  apart, 
but  usually  15  by  15  feet  is  a  better  distance.  The  greater 
distance  provides  more  room  for  driving  through  the  grounds, 
for  spraying  and  for  gathering  the  fruit.  In  selecting  the 
trees  for  planting  see  that  they  are  young,  thrifty  and  free 
17 


258  THE  POME  FRUITS 

from  disease.  A  one-year-old  tree  from  the  bud  or  a  two- 
year-old  root  grafted  tree  is  preferable. 

The  systems  for  planting  a  pear  orchard  are  the  same  as 
.  those  for  the  apple,  and  the  only  point  of  difference  is  the 
distance  the  individual  trees  are  set. 

The  time  of  planting  the  pear  varies,  but  in  sections 
south  of  the  forty-first  parallel  of  latitude  fall  planting  is 
probably  the  best,  but  in  the  territory  north  of  this  line 
spring  planting  is  recommended. 

Pruning. — The  pear  resembles  the  apple  in  many  ways 
in  the  growth  of  the  tree.  What  has  been  said  of  the  apple 
applies  equally  well  to  the  pear. 

A  low-headed  pear  tree  is  as  desirable  as  a  low-headed 
apple.  The  number  of  branches  which  make  up  the  frame- 
work is  usually  five  or  six,  because  the  pear  tree  rarely  ever 
attains  the  size  of  the  apple  tree.  The  branches  which  form 
the  framework  should  be  distributed  along  the  trunk  of  the 
tree,  and  never  be  allowed  to  form  a  fork. 

The  young  pear  tree  should  be  pruned  back  similar  to 
that  of  the  apple.  Each  main  branch  should  be  cut  off  so 
that  it  will  be  from  10  to  12  inches  long.  The  operation  of 
.shortening  the  branches  should  continue  each  year  until  the 
tree  comes  into  bearing  after  which  time  very  little  pruning 
is  necessary.- 

Mature  and  bearing  trees  should  be  thinned  out  from 
time  to  time  and  all  water  sprouts  removed  as  soon  as  they 
are  formed. 

Harvesting. — The  harvesting  of  the  pear  is  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  the  apple.  The  pear  is  usually  picked 
before  it  is  entirely  ripe  and  allowed  to  ripen  off  of  the 
tree.  This  early  picking  is  made  necessary  where  the  pear  is 
shipped  away  and  also  because  the  pear  soon  deteriorates 
after  it  ripens.  As  a  rule,  the  proper  time  to  pick  is  when 
the  first  pears  begin  to  turn  a  light  yellow,  although  some 
varieties  are  picked  when  no  sign  of  color  is  apparent.  The 
fruit  should  be  picked  carefully  with  the  stem  attached. 

Marketing. — The  pear  is  packed  and  marketed  in  several 
styles  of  vessels.  As  a  rule,  the  barrel  is  largely  used  although 
frequently  the  bushel,  peck  and  sometimes  the  half-peck 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PEAR  259 

baskets  are  used.  In  some  sections  the  bushel  box,  similar 
to  that  of  the  apple  is  used.  In  certain  regions  each  pear  is 
wrapped  separately  in  soft  tissue  paper.  The  pear  is  gener- 
ally packed  for  the  market  directly  from  the  tree.  The 
market  demands  a  pear  of  medium  size,  and  one  of  an 
attractive  appearance. 

Varieties. — The  selection  of  varieties  varies  with  the 
section  and  the  use  of  the  fruit.  The  pears  have  a  wide 
range  in  their  season  of  ripening,  so  that  if  the  proper  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  selection  of  varieties  the  grower  may 
have  fruit  for  his  table  or  for  the  market  from  midsummer 
until  early  March.  Many  varieties  are  tender  skinned  and 
unfit  for  a  commercial  purpose  but  are  highly  prized  for  the 
home. 

A  few  varieties  recommended  for  planting  may  be  enu- 
merated as  follows:  Clapp  Favorite,  Bartlett,  Bosc,  Winter 
Nelis,  Sheldon,  Anjou,  Kieffer  and  Lawrence  for  commercial 
planting,  while  the  Bloodgood,  Brandywine,  Flemish  Beauty, 
White  Doyenne,  Seckel  and  Angouleme  should  be  added  to 
the  first  list  for  use  in  the  home  orchard. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PEAR. 

The  pear,  like  many  other  fruits,  has  several  diseases  and 
insects  which  are  only  found  on  this  plant.  In  addition  to 
these  special  forms  there  are  many  more  which  are  common 
to  the  apple  and  some  of  the  other  fruits. 

Pear  Blight. — The  pear  blight  has  been  known  in  this 
country  for  more  than  a  century.  The  blight  is  perhaps 
the  most  serious  disease  of  the  pear.  It  is  also  found  on 
the  apple,  where  it  becomes  very  dangerous  on  certain 
varieties.  The  blight  is  more  commonly  seen  during  the 
early  part  of  the  growing  season.  It  usually  appears  in  the 
form  of  a  twig  blight  throughout  the  blooming  period. 
The  blight  may  continue  to  extend  down  the  twig  until  the 
branch  is  entirely  killed  by  its  progress.  However,  under 
favorable  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  host  plant,  the 
blight  may  never  extend  more  than  a  few  inches  from  the 
tip  of  the  branch. 


260 


THE  POME  FRUITS 


The  pear  blight  is  the  result  of  the  work  of  bacteria.  The 
bacillus  multiplies  very  rapidly  under  favorable  conditions. 
The  nectar  in  the  flowers  offers  a  very  good  medium  on 
which  to  develop.  From  this  source  it  is  usually  carried 


FIG.  111. — Fire  blight  of  the  pear  on  the  twig.     (After  Whetzel  and  Stewart, 
Cornell  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

from  one  plant  to  another  by  insects  visiting  the  different 
flowers. 

The  control  of  the  blight  is  only  accomplished  by  system- 
atic and  careful  pruning.     It  may  even  be  eradicated  by 


INSECTS  OF  THE  PEAR  261 

diligent  work.  The  essential  step  consists  in  cutting  out 
the  blight  in  places  where  it  may  winter  over.  Where  the 
blight  is  thoroughly  pruned  out  during  the  fall  and  winter 
there  would  probably  be  no  opportunity  for  infection  the 
following  season  if  care  is  exercised  in  preventing  it  from 
being  carried  in  from  other  regions.  When  pruning,  the 
knife  should  be  disinfected  after  every  cut  by  immersing  it  in 
a  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury.  This  serves  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  the  disease.  Spraying  is  of  no  value. 

Pear  Scab. — The  scab  found  on  the  pear  is  closely  related 
to  that  of  the  apple  and  quite  generally  referred  to  as  a 
distinct  species.  The  parts  affected  are  the  same  as  those 
on  the  apple.  However,  the  scab  on  the  pear  seems  to  be 
more  destructive  and  causes  the  fruit  to  crack  open  when 
it  is  very  abundant. 

Some  varieties  of  pears  are  less  susceptible  to  the  attack 
of  this  disease,  and  the  Bartlett,  Kieffer  and  Le  Conte  seem 
to  be  the  least  affected. 

The  same  remedies  recommended  for  the  control  of  the 
scab  on  the  apple  are  used  for  the  pear. 

In  addition  to  the  diseases  mentioned  there  are  several 
more  which  are  common  to  the  pear,  and  are  also  found  on 
the  apple.  These  are  discussed  under  the  apple  and  can  be 
controlled  by  the  same  methods  as  recommended  for  the 
apple. 

INSECTS  OF  THE  PEAR. 

Many  of  the  insects  found  on  the  pear  are  also  common 
on  the  apple.  Only  those  insects  which  particularly  affect 
the  pear  are  discussed.  The  most  injurious  insects  to  the  pear 
are  the  codling  moth,  the  San  Jose  scale,  the  pear  psylla  and 
the  pear  thrips.  The  codling  moth  and  the  San  Jose  scale 
are  discussed  under  the  apple. 

Pear  Psylla. — The  pear  psylla  is  imported  from  Europe, 
and  it  is  generally  distributed  over  the  country.  It  varies  in 
abundance  from  year  to  year  in  different  localities.  Badly 
infested  trees  take  on  a  sickly  appearance  early  in  the  season, 
the  leaves  turn  a  brownish  color,  dry  up  and  fall  off  early 
in  the  summer.  The  fruit  falls  prematurely. 


262  THE  POME  FRUITS 

The  adult  insect  resembles  a  small  cicada,  and  is  about 
YQ-  inch  in  length,  dark  reddish  brown  in  color  with  a  band 
of  black  across  the  abdomen.  The  psylla  is  a  sucking  insect 
and  takes  its  food  by  sucking  the  juices  out  of  the  plant. 
The  insects  usually  collect  around  the  base  of  the  leaf  and 
the  fruit  stems  until  these  places  become  crowded,  when 
they  can  be  found  feeding  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

The  control  of  this  insect  is  made  much  easier  if  the 
orchard  is  kept  clean  and  free  from  trash  and  rubbish.  Dur- 
ing the  fall  the  rough  bark  should  be  scraped  from  the  trunk 
and  larger  branches  to  render  them  less  attractive  places 
as  winter  quarters. 

Many  of  these  insects  crawl  out  from  their  hiding  places 
during  warm  days  in  the  late  fall  and  early  spring  and  are 
very  sluggish  in  their  movement.  At  such  times  large  num- 
bers of  the  insects  can  be  killed  by  spraying  them  with  Black 
Leaf  40  at  the  rate  of  1  pint  to  100  gallons  of  water  to  which 
3  or  4  pounds  of  soap  is  added.  The  insecticide  should  be 
applied  on  days  when  there  is  no  danger  of  the  liquid  freez- 
ing. Kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with  10  parts  of  water  or 
1  pound  of  whale  oil  soap  dissolved  in  4  to  6  gallons  of 
water  is  also  used  effectively  against  this  insect. 

Pear  Thrips. — The  thrips  have  become  very  serious  in 
.certain  pear-growing  regions.  They  seem  to  be  widely 
distributed,  being  found  in  California,  in  New  York  and 
also  in  England. 

The  thrips  are  very  small  insects,  measuring  only  about 
-^o  inch  in  length.  The  adults  are  dark  brown  and  emerge 
from  the  ground  about  the  time  the  fruit  buds  are  bursting. 

The  injury  done  by  these  insects  is  very  similar  to  that 
done  by  the  psylla.  They  are  found  attacking  the  same 
parts  of  the  plant  and  feeding  in  the  same  manner.  This 
insect  is  also  found  on  the  peach,  apricot  and  plum,  but  the 
pear  suffers  the  greatest  injury. 

The  pear  thrips  may  be  satisfactorily  controlled  by  proper 
methods  of  cultivation  and  spraying.  The  ground  should 
be  plowed  to  a  depth  of  8  to  10  inches  during  the  fall  and  in 
some  cases  harrowed  and  again  cross-plowed.  Two  sprayings 
with  Black  Leaf  40  should  be  given  in  the  spring.  The 


INSECTS  OF  THE  PEAR 


263 


first  spray  should  be  supplied  just  as  the  buds  begin  to  open 
and  the  second  just  after  the  petals  fall.     Black  Leaf  40 


FIG.  112. — The  pear  showing  injury  to  the  blossom  clusters  due  to  the  work  of 
the  thrips.     (After  Parrott,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


- 


at  the  rate  of  1  pint  to  100  gallons  of  water  to  which  has 
been  added  5  pounds  of  soap  is  the  proper  spray  material. 


264 


THE  POME  FRUITS 


OUTLINE  FOR  SPRAYING  THE  PEAR. 


No.  of 
spray. 

First 
Second 


Third 
Fourth 

Fifth 


Time  to  spray. 
Just  before  the  buds  swell  in 

spring 
Just  as  the  buds  show  pink 


Just  as  petals  are  falling 
Three  weeks  after  the  third 

spray 
About  July  15  to  August  1 


Spray  materials. 

Commercial  lime  sulphur  di- 
luted 1  to  8. 

Commercial  lime  sulphur  di- 
luted 1  to  35  plus  2  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50 
gallons  of  the  spray. 

Same  as  second  spray. 

Same  as  second  spray. 

4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  plus 
2  pounds  arsenate  of  lead 
to  50  gallons  of  spray  or 
commercial  lime  sulphur  1 
gallon  to  35  gallons  of  water 
plus  2  pounds  arsenate  of 
lead  to  50  gallons  of  spray. 


QUINCE. 


The  quince  is  the  least  importance  of  the  pome  fruits. 
It  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  Southeastern  Europe.  It  is  valued 
chiefly  for  the  making  of  jellies  and  preserves.  The  tree 
is  small  and  irregular  in  growth  and  varies  from  10  to  15 
feet  in  height. 

Propagation. — The  quince  is  very  easily  propagated  either 
by  layering  or  by  cuttings.  Layering  is  performed  by  bend- 
ing the  young  shoots  down  in  the  spring  and  burying  them 
so  that  a  few  of  the  terminal  buds  are  exposed  above  the 
ground.  By  autumn  the  branch  will  be  rooted  and  can  be 
removed  from  the  parent  tree  and  set  into  a  new  location. 
The  quince  is  also  extensively  propagated  by  hard-wood  cut- 
tings, both  for  raising  stocks  as  well  as  producing  trees  for 
fruiting. 

Soil. — The  soil  for  the  quince  should  be  deep  and  rich. 
One  that  will  raise  good  corn  and  potatoes  is  well  suited  for 
the  quince.  A  clay  loam  is  to  be  preferred  ove:  a  sandy 
loam.  Good  drainage  is  essential  and  a  porous  subsoil 
is  desirable.  An  application  of  manure  to  the  soil  in  the 
spring  has  been  found  to  be  beneficial. 

Cultivation. — The  ground  should  be  well  cultivated  during 
the  growing  season.  If  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  neglected, 


QUINCE  265 

the  trees  will  sometimes  be  dwarfed,  stunted  and  entirely 
unproductive.  The  cultivation  should  stop  about  the  middle 
of  the  summer  so  the  tree  will  ripen  up  its  wood.  This  is 
very  important  because  the  quince  is  attacked  by  fire 
blight,  and  when  the  tree  is  allowed  to  grow  too  long  in  the 
fall  it  has  the  tendency  to  encourage  this  disease. 

Pruning. — Very  little  pruning  is  required.  The  aim 
should  be  to  keep  off  the  suckers  which  start  from  the  roots 
and  trunk  of  the  tree.  In  the  pruning  of  a  young  tree  it 
can  either  be  trained  to  one  stem  or  trimmed  so  the  plant 
will  resemble  a  bush.  In  the  latter  case  three  or  four  main 
branches  are  allowed  to  grow.  Where  the  plant  is  pruned  to 
one  stem  and  forms  a  little  tree  instead  of  a  bush  usually 
better  and  cleaner  fruit  will  be  produced. 

Varieties. — There  are  only  a  very  few  commercial  varieties 
of  quinces,  and  these  are  generally  known  and  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  Orange,  Champion,  Rea  and  Meech  seem  to 
be  the  most  popular,  and  are  the  varieties  that  are  usually 
grown. 

Insects  and  Diseases. — The  quince  is  attacked  by  prac- 
tically the  same  insects  and  diseases  that  are  found  on  the 
apple  and  the  pear.  There  are  no  troubles  which  are 
specifically  attached  to  only  the  quince  as  there  are  in  the 
case  of  the  pear.  The  quince,  however,  seems  to  be  par- 
ticularly susceptible  to  the  attack  of  the  pear  blight  and 
leaf  rust. 

OUTLINE  FOR  SPRAYING  THE  QUINCE. 

No.  of 

spray.  Time  to  spray.  Spray  materials. 

First  Before  buds  swell  in  the  spring         Commercial  lime  sulphur  1  to 

8. 

Second         Just  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell         4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Third  Two  weeks  after  the  second         4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  plus 

spray  2  pounds  arsenate  of  lead 

to  50  gallons  if  curculio  is 
present. 

Fourth  Just  as  the  blossoms  are  falling  Commercial  lime  sulphur  di- 
luted 1  to  35,  plus  2  pounds 
arsenate  of  lead. 

Fifth  About  three  weeks  after  the         Same  as  fourth  spray, 

fourth 


266  THE  POME  FRUITS 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  pomaceous  fruits? 

2.  Discuss  the  two  principal  ways  of  propagating  the  apple.     Which  one 
is  the  most  important? 

3.  What  is  the  most  congenial  soil  for  the  apple?     Why? 

4.  How  does  the  planting  of  the  apple  differ  from  that  of  the  pear? 

5.  Illustrate  by  drawing  the  three  systems  of  planting  an  orchard. 

6.  Which  system  of  planting  requires  the  least  number  of  trees?     The 
greatest  number? 

7.  Why  is  cultivation  of  the  apple  orchard  important? 

8.  Discuss  the  important  points  to  be  considered  in  pruning  the  apple. 

9.  How  does  spring  planting  compare  with  fall  planting? 

10.  What  determines  the  distance  in  planting  the  apple? 

11.  How  does  cultivation  compare  with  mulching? 

12.  Discuss  the  rots  of  the  pome  fruits  and  give  the  methods  of  treating 
them. 

13.  How  do  the  apple  scab  and  the  sooty  blotch  differ  from  the  rots? 

14.  What  kind  of  a  disease  is  the  fire  blight  and  how  can  it  be  controlled? 

15.  Discuss  the  codling  moth  and  the  San  Jose  scale  and  give  the  methods 
of  control; 

16.  On  what  fruits  is  the  San  Jose  scale  injurious? 

17.  Discuss  the  difference  between  the  tent  caterpillar  and  the  canker 
worm. 

18.  Does  the  propagation  of  the  pear  differ  from  that  of  the  apple? 

19.  Discuss  the  soil  and  the  cultivation  of  the  pear. 

20.  How  does  the  planting  of  the  pear  differ  from  that  of  the  apple? 

21.  Discuss  the  pruning  of  the  pear. 

22.  Name  three  varieties  of  the  apple  and  pear  that  are  good  for  the  home 
garden,  and  three  for  the  commercial  orchard. 

23.  Is  the  pear  scab  the  same  as  the  apple  scab?     Discuss. 

24.  Describe  the  pear  psylla  and  tell  how  it  is  controlled. 

25.  Discuss  the  pear  thrips  and  tell  how  they  injure  the  plant. 

26.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  pear. 

27.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  the  quince. 

28.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  quince. 


CHAPTER  XVII.    . 
THE  STONE  FRUITS. 

THE  stone  fruits  include  the  cherries,  peaches  and  plums. 
They  are  called  stone  fruits  because  of  the  hard  stony  seed 
found  in  the  flesh.  In  general,  each  fruit  has  similar  require- 
ments, although  there  are  specific  differences  which  are 
characteristic  to  each  one.  Practically  all  of  the  stone 
fruits  are  very  perishable  and  cannot  be  kept  for  any  length 
of  time.  They  are  affected  by  the  same  insects  and  diseases. 

CHERRY. 

The  cultivated  cherry  has  probably  been  produced  from 
the  two  European  species,  Prunus  avium,  the  ancestor  of  the 
sweet  cherries,  and  Prunus  cerasus,  the  ancestor  of  the  sour 
cherries. 

The  sweet  cherry  trees  are  characterized  by  a  tall  erect 
growth,  by  reddish-brown  glossy  bark  which  has  a  tendency 
to  peel  in  rings.  The  flowers  usually  appear  with  the  leaves 
and  are  generally  born  in  clusters  on  lateral  spurs.  The  fruit 
is  either  red,  yellow  or  black  and  either  spherical,  heart- 
shaped  or  pointed.  The  flesh  is  either  soft  or  firm.  The  sweet 
cherries  are  divided  into  three  groups,  namely,  the  Hearts, 
the  Bigarreaus  and  the  Dukes. 

The  sour  cherry  trees  are  characterized  by  a  low  headed 
and  a  spreading  form  of  a  tree.  The  flowers  are  born  in 
clusters  from  lateral  buds,  which  appear  in  advance  of  the 
leaves.  The  fruit  is  round,  red,  soft  and  sour.  The  sour 
cherries  are  divided  into  two  groups — the  Amarellas  and  the 
Morellos. 

Propagation. — The  cherry  is  usually  propagated  by  budding. 
The  budding  should  be  done  in  the  nursery  row  when  the 


268 


STONE  FRUITS 


trees  are  yearlings.  The  stock  on  which  the  cherries  are 
budded  is  very  important.  The  sour  cherries  are  budded 
mainly  upon  Mahaleb  stock,  but  sometimes  they  are  worked 
on  the  Mazzard  stock.  The  sweet  varieties  are  almost 
universally  budded  upon  the  Mazzard  stock. 


FIG.  113. — Sweet  cherry  tree,  two  years  old.     (Gould,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Where  cherries  are  grown  on  a  large  scale  it  seems  to  be 
advisable  to  select  the  buds  for  propagation  purposes  from 
bearing  trees  that  have  proved  their  worth.  It  is  a  known 
fact  that  certain  trees  bear  uniformly  every  year  while  others 
bear  sparingly  and  some  scarcely  at  all.  When  the  buds  are 
taken  from  non-bearing  trees  the  propagator  never  knows 
whether  the  new  tree  is  going  to  be  of  any  value,  while  if 
the  buds  are  selected  from  a  bearing  tree  with  good  fruit 
the  chances  seem  to  be  greater  for  success  in  producing  a  good 
bearing  tree. 


CHERRY 


269 


Soil. — The  cherry  can  be  grown  on  a  variety  of  soils.  It 
probably  reaches  its  highest  development  on  a  light,  dry, 
sandy  loam  or  a  light  clay  loam.  The  sour  cherries  require 
plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  but  the  sweet  cherries  will 
grow  very  successfully  on  soil  too  dry  for  other  fruits.  The 
soil  should  be  rich  in  mineral  plant  food,  but  it  should  not 
have  too  much  nitrogenous  matter  in  it.  A  rich,  stiff,  clay 


FIG.  114. — A  sour  cherry  tree,  three  years  old.     (Gould,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 


soil,  with  plenty  of  nitrogen  in  it,  produces  a  tree  that  is 
rarely  ever  productive  and  is  usually  short-lived,  while  a 
poorly  drained  soil  produces  practically  a  worthless  tree. 
The  cherry  is  a  heavy  feeder  and  it  should  be  encouraged  in 
growth  while  young,  but  too  much  wood  growth  should  be 
discouraged  in  the  old  and  bearing  trees. 

The  subsoil  for  the  cherry  should  be  porous  and  well- 
drained.    It  should  be  neither  a  hard  clay  nor  a  dry  gravel. 


270  STONE  FRUITS 

Planting. — Many  conditions  enter  into  the  planting  of  the 
cherry  which  determines  the  distance  of  the  trees.  The  soil, 
the  climate  and  the  rainfall  are  the  most  influential  factors 
in  deciding  this  point.  The  habit  of  growth  of  the  tree  also 
regulates  the  distance.  The  sweet  cherry,  which  is  a  vigorous 
grower,  should  be  planted  from  30  to  40  feet  apart,  while  the 
sour  cherry,  which  is  not  such  a  vigorous  grower,  can  be  set 
from  20  to  25  feet  apart.  On  a  rich  soil  more  room  should 
be  provided  for  each  tree  than  on  a  poor  sandy  soil. 

The  cherry  should  always  be  planted  alone  and  never  used 
as  a  filler  in  an  orchard,  and  neither  should  fillers  of  any 
other  tree  be  used  in  a  cherry  orchard. 

The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  before  any  planting 
is  started.  The  surface  should  be  level  and  all  large  lumps 
and  stones  should  be  removed  from  the  land.  Any  system 
which  suits  the  tastes  of  the  grower  can  be  used  in  setting 
the  trees. 

Either  spring  or  fall  planting  can  be  practised.  When 
spring  opens  early  and  the  winters  are  mild,  with  plenty  of 
moisture  until  late  in  the  season,  fall  planting  may  be  prac- 
tised to  an  advantage.  When  there  is  danger  of  very  cold 
winter  weather,  early  spring  planting  is  the  best  for  the 
cherry. 

The  cherry  should  be  set  in  a  hole  large  enough  to  receive 
the  roots  without  crowding  them.  It  should  be  planted 
deep  enough  so  the  tree  will  be  2  or  3  inches  deeper  than  it 
formerly  stood  in  the  nursery  row.  All  broken  and  injured 
roots  should  be  pruned  off,  cutting  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  cut  surface  will  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  The 
hole  should  be  filled  about  one-half  full  with  top  soil  and 
pressed  firmly  about  the  roots  and  the  remainder  of  the  soil 
should  be  thrown  in  and  all  tramped  down  well.  When  the 
planting  is  finished  throw  several  shovelfuls  of  loose  soil 
over  the  top  of  the  ground.  The  loose  soil  prevents  the  loss 
of  water  and  keeps  it  from  baking  and  from  cracking. 

Cultivation. — The  cull  ivation  of  the  soil  is  essential  for  the 
greatest  success  in  cherry  culture.  The  most  intensive  cul- 
tivation should  be  given  to  the  young  trees  from  the  time 
they  are  planted  until  they  are  four  or  five  years  old.  Clean 


CHERRY  271 

culture  and  good  cultivation  is  probably  better  for  the  bearing 
orchard  than  is  either  the  grass  or  the  mulch  system. 

The  cultivation  of  the  bearing  orchard  should  start  in  the 
spring  just  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  ready  to  work.  The  soil 
should  first  be  plowed  or  disked  and  pulverized  by  harrowing 
it  until  it  is  firm  and  smooth.  When  the  soil  is  prepared  in 
good  shape,  it  should  then  be  harrowed  or  surface  cultivated 
every  two  weeks  and  after  every  rain  until  about  the  middle 
of  July  or  the  first  of  August.  A  cover  crop  should  be  sown 
about  this  time  to  check  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  to  ripen 
up  the  wood  for  winter. 

The  cover  crops  used  for  the  cherry  vary  in  different 
sections  and  for  different  purposes.  If  the  trees  are  making  a 
poor  and  an  unsatisfactory  growth  the  cover  crops  should  be 
a  leguminous  crop  such  as  Canada  peas,  crimson  clover  or 
hairy  vetch.  If  the  growth  of  the  trees  is  good  and  plenty  of 
wood  is  being  made  then  the  cover  crop  should  be  fall  rye 
or  winter  wheat.  The  following  spring  the  cover  crop  should 
be  plowed  under. 

Pruning. — The  first  and  the  most  important  pruning  of  the 
cherry  should  be  done  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year's 
growth.  The  lateral  branches  should  be  cut  close  and  the 
top  headed  back  to  about  3  feet  from  the  ground.  This  pro- 
cedure will  establish  a  well-balanced,  low-headed  tree. 

Beginning  with  the  third  year  select  from  three  to  five  of 
the  best  branches  for  the  framework  of  the  tree  and  remove 
all  of  the  other  branches.  The  most  central  branch  should 
be  maintained  as  the  leader  and  should  be  pruned  so  that  it  is 
5  or  6  inches  longer  than  the  other  branches.  The  remaining 
branches  which  make  up  the  framework  of  the  tree  should 
be  cut  back  to  5  or  6  inches  in  length.  The  scaffold  branches 
should  be  selected  with  relation  to  each  other  and  should  be 
well  distributed. 

The  fourth  and  fifth  years  the  pruning  should  be  directed  to 
thinning  out  of  the  surplus  branches  and  to  establishing  a 
systematical  tree.  As  the  tree  grows  older  very  little  prun- 
ing is  necessary.  Usually  after  the  cherry  begins  to  bear,  it 
requires  no  pruning. 


272  STONE  FRUITS 

Harvesting. — The  method  by  which  cherries  are  picked  is 
determined  to  a  limited  extent  by  the  way  in  which  they  are 
going  to  be  used.  If  they  are  for  immediate  use  in  the  home 
they  can  be  picked  either  with  or  without  the  stems.  If  the 
fruit  is  for  long  distant  shipment  the  stems  must  be  attached 
to  the  fruit.  If  the  stems  are  pulled  off  the  juice  will  ooze  out. . 
In  some  cherry-growing  regions  the  stems  are  clipped  with 
small  shears. 

The  time  of  picking  the  fruit  is  determined  by  the  distance 
of  the  market  and  the  variety  of  cherry.  For  distant  ship- 
ment the  light-colored  sorts  should  be  picked  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  color,  and  the  dark-colored  varieties  long  before  they 
are  dark  and  juicy.  For  local  consumption  the  fruit  can 
remain  on  the  tree  until  it  is  ripe  enough  to  pick  without 
being  too  soft.  The  fruit  should  be  handled  carefully  so  that 
the  skin  is  not  broken  or  injured,  because  this  gives  an 
entrance  to  fungi,  which  will  cause  the  fruit  to  rot.  The 
cherry  should  never  be  poured  from  one  vessel  to  another, 
because  this  bruises  and  injures  the  flesh. 

Packing. — The  fruit  should  be  packed  as  soon  as  it  is 
picked.  If  it  is  to  be  shipped  any  great  distance  it  should 
be  precooled  at  once  and  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars. 

The  cherry  is  packed  in  several  different  styles  of  pack- 
ages, which  are  characteristic  of  the  different  sections.  The 
16-quart  crate  is  perhaps  used  more  than  any  other  style, 
although  in  some  sections  the  24-  and  the  32-quart  crates 
are  used. 

A  small  basket  holding  from  6  to  8  pounds  is  used  in  places, 
while  sweet  cherries  are  often  packed  in  a  10-pound  flat  box. 

Varieties.- — There  is  a  comparatively  large  list  of  varieties 
of  the  cherry,  both  of  the  sweet  and  th  *  sour.  Some  varieties 
are  valued  for  home  use  wrhile  others  are  better  suited  for 
commercial  planting.  The  varieties  of  cherries  have  not 
been  developed  for  any  definite  geographical  regions.  Many 
varieties  have  been  described,  but  only  a  few  of  them  are 
profitable. 

Among  the  sweet  cherries  probably  the  firm  fleshed  ;*ed 
and  black  Bigarreaus  are  the  most  profitable.  The  light- 
colored  Bigarreaus  and  the  Hearts  are  more  susceptible  to 


DISEASES  OF  THE  CHERRY  273 

the  fruit  rot  and  the  light  varieties  show  bruises  and  finger 
marks  when  placed  on  the  market.  Among  the  sour  cherries 
the  Montmorency,  the  English  Morello  and  the  Early  Rich- 
mond have  been  the  best  money  makers.  The  Windsor, 
Royal  Ann,  Black  Tartarian,  Governor  Wood  and  Nepolean 
are  among  the  bes.t  of  the  sweet  cherries. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  CHERRY. 

The  cherry  has  several  diseases  and  insects  that  are  serious. 
Most  all  of  the  troubles  can  be  controlled  by  a  correct 
diagnosis  of  the  injury  and  the  proper  treatment.  Few  people 
realize  that  all  of  the  so-called  rots  on  the  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  diseases,  and  in  many  cases  these  can  be  prevented  by 
timely  treatment.  The  rot  of  the  cherry,  peach,  plum, 
apple  and  pear  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  a  parasitic 
fungus  which  destroys  the  tissue  of  the  fruit. 

Brown  Rot. — The  brown  rot  is  a  disease  that  attacks  all  of 
the  stone  fruits,  namely,  the  cherry,  peach,  plum  and  apricot. 
It  is  widespread  and  very  destructive  to  the  fruit.  The 
brown  rot  first  appears  as  a  small  dark  brown  spot.  This 
spot  increases  in  size  until  the  whole  frait  is  infected.  While 
it  primarily  affects  the  fruit,  it  is  also  known  to  attack  the 
flowers  and  the  branches,  following  years  of  unusual  out- 
breaks of  the  disease.  The  decayed  fruit  either  falls  to  che 
ground  or  hangs  on  the  tcee,  and  it  is  a  continual  source  of 
infection.  This  disease  net  only  causes  great  damage  in  the 
orchard,  but  it  also  affects  the  fruit  in  shipment  and  on  the 
market. 

In  order  to  effectively  control  the  brown  rot,  preventive 
measures  must  begin  in  the  late  winter  or  early  spring.  All 
of  the  mummied  fruits  on  the  tree  should  be  destroyed  and 
a  general  cleaning  up  given  around  the  tree.  The  spraying 
of  the  trees  with  a  6-6-50  Bordeaux  mixture  when  they  are 
dormant  will  aid  in  killing  many  spores  on  the  branches. 
After  the  trees  come  out  in  leaf  a  weaker  solution  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  sometimes  helps  to  keep  the  disease  in  check. 

Black  Knot. — The  black  knot  is  a  very  striking  as  well  as 
a  most  common  disease  of  the  cherry  and  the  plum.  This 
18 


274  STONE  FRUITS 

disease  is  very  unsightly.  It  consists  of  wart-like  bodies 
which  cover  a  considerable  area  on  the  twigs  and  the  limbs. 
It  is  confined  entirely  to  the  woody  parts  and  is  usually 
found  on  one  side  of  the  branch.  As  the  infected  part 
increases  in  size  the  bark  is  broken  and  the  fungus  is  seen. 
These  knots  will  have  reached  full  size  by  early  summer. 
Since  the  knots  are  points  of  infection,  and  the  fungus  is  local 
in  its  habit,  it  is  evident  that  by  the  pruning  out  of  the  knots 
the  disease  can  be  eradicated.  In  fact  only  a  few  knots  are 
present  when  the  infection  begins,  and  by  carefully  watching 
the  tree  and  cutting  off  and  destroying  the  knots  as  soon 
as  they  appear,  little  trouble  will  be  experienced  with  this 
disease. 

Shot-hole  Disease. — The  name  of  this  disease  is  significant 
referring  to  the  appearance  of  the  leaf,  which  resembles  one 
that  has  been  shot  full  of  holes  with  a  shotgun.  This  disease 
occurs  on  the  cherry  and  the  plum  and  occasionally  on  the 
other  stone  fruits.  Small  infected  areas  appear  on  the  leaves 
and  as  the  disease  advances  these  diseased  spots  gradually 
die,  shrink  in  size  and  fall  out,  leaving  a  small  hole  in  the  leaf. 
A  number  of  these  diseased  areas  occasionally  coalesce  and 
make  a  larger  hole.  This  disease  can  be  held  in  check  by 
destroying  all  leaves,  which  is  best  done  by  cultivating  the 
soil  and  turning  the  leaves  under.  If  the  trees  are  sprayed 
with  the  standard  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  early  in  the 
spring  while  they  are  dormant  it  will  aid  considerably.  Suc- 
cessive sprays  should  follow,  with  a  dilute  alkaline  Bordeaux 
mixture,  although  on  some  plants  the  use  of  Bordeaux  may 
be  accompanied  by  some  injury  to  the  foliage. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  CHERRY. 

Plant  Louse. — The  plant  louse  often  becomes  troublesome, 
and  especially  on  the  sweet  cherries,  which  are  more  liable 
to  injury  by  the  louse  than  the  sour  varieties.  The  damage 
to  this  plant  by  the  plant  lice  is  similar  to  that  of  any  other 
plant.  These  insects  are  always  abundant  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves,  and  this  irritation  causes  them  to  curl 


PEACH  275 

under.  Spraying  with  Black  Leaf  40,  diluted  1  part  to  500 
parts  of  water,  or  with  kerosene  emulsion  is  recommended. 

Slug. — The  slug  is  the  larvae  of  a  small  black  fly.  It  is 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  slug  attacks  both 
the  cherry  and  the  pear.  In  reality  it  is  the  pear  slug  which 
often  feeds  on  the  cherry.  The  adults  appear  in  the  spring 
and  lay  their  eggs  in  a  little  slit  made  for  that  purpose  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf.  The  egg  hatches  into  a  little  worm 
which  soon  becomes  covered  with  a  brownish,  sticky,  slimy 
material.  The  body  of  the  slug  is  swollen  in  front  and  tapers 
behind,  resembling  a  tadpole.  The  larvae  feed  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaves,  eating  only  the  upper  layer  and  leaving 
the  skeleton  of  veins  and  the  lower  epidermis  to  turn  brown 
and  die.  Badly  infested  trees  lose  all  of  their  leaves  by  mid- 
summer. The  fruit  becomes  stunted  and  fails  to  mature, 
and  the  vitality  of  the  tree  is  greatly  weakened.  In  severe 
infestations  the  trees  appear  to  have  been  swept  by  fire. 

When  only  a  few  trees  are  attacked  by  the  slugs,  the  insects 
may  be  destroyed  by  one  or  two  applications  of  freshly 
slaked  lime  dusted  on  the  leaves.  On  larger  tracts  arsenate 
of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water  should 
be  used. 

SPRAYING  OUTLINE   FOR  THE   CHERRY. 

No.  of 

spray.    .  Time  to  spray.  Spray  materials. 

First  Before  buds  open  in  spring  Commercial  lime   sulphur,    1 

part  to  8  parts  of  water. 

Second         Just  before  blossoms  open  2-2-50  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Third  Just  after  blossoms  fall  2-2-50     Bordeaux     plus      2 

pounds  arsenate  of  lead  to 
50  gallons  of  spray. 
Fourth         Two  weeks  after  the  third  Same  as  third. 

If  the  black  plant  lice  are  present  spray  with  Black  Leaf  40, 
1  part  to  500  parts  of  water.  If  slugs  appear  after  the  fruit 
is  harvested  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2 
pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

PEACH. 

The  peach. seems  to  be  unknown  in  the  wild  state  except 
where  circumstances  seem  to  support  the  opinion  that  it  has 


276  STONE  FRUITS 

escaped  from  cultivation  at  an  earlier  date.  In  parts  of  Asia 
and  Persia  apparently  wild  trees  have  been  observed.  Persia 
has  for  some  time  been  regarded  as  the  source  from  which 
this  fruit  came,  but  it  appeared  in  Greece  soon  after  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  There  is  some  question  of 
doubt  in  the  minds  of  many  as  to  whether  Persia  is  the 
original  home  of  the  peach  or  whether  it  came  first  from  China. 
De  Condolle  is  of  the  opinion  that  China  is  the  original  home 
of  the  peach  and  not  Persia,  as  is  generally  thought. 

The  first  records  of  the  peach  in  this  country  seem  to  date 
back  to  1565,  when  the  Spaniards  are  said  to  have  planted 
peach  pits  at  St.  Augustine,  Florida.  There  is  very  little 
doubt  but  that  the  earliest  settlers  in  this  country  brought 
pits  and  cuttings  of  the  fruit  they  were  familiar  with  in  their 
home  countries  and  that  the  peach  was  among  these  plants 
imported. 

Propagation. — The  peach  is  propagated  exclusively  by 
budding.  The  seeds  or  pits  are  collected  and  generally 
planted  in  the  fall  in  rows  from  3  to  4  feet  apart  where  the 
seedlings  are  to  be  grown.  In  some  sections  where  the 
weather  is  very  cold  the  pits  are  stratified  and  the  kernels 
planted  in  the  spring.  In  dry  climates  it  is  important  that 
the  pits  are  not  permitted  to  dry  out. 

When  the  seedlings  have  reached  the  proper  size  they  are 
budded.  Usually  the  seedlings  are  large  enough  for  budding 
by  midsummer  and  the  budding  is  done  largely  in  July, 
August  and  early  September.  The  shield  bud  is  the  form 
most  often  employed  and  the  bud  is  inserted  2  or  3  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  As  soon  as  the  bud  grows 
fast  to  the  stock  it  is  a  common  practice  to  break  over  the 
tops  of  the  seedling  stocks  by  cutting  them  nearly  off  just 
above  the  point  where  the  bud  is  inserted.  The  top  can 
either  be  removed  later  in  the  fall  or  allowed  to  remain 
attached  until  the  following  spring.  In  some  cases  the  top  is 
cut  off  in  the  spring  without  being  previously  broken  over. 

A  limited  amount  of  budding  is  sometimes  done  in  June. 
This  is  known  as  June  budding,  and  is  only  possible  in  the 
southern  sections,  where  the  plant  has  the  advantage  of  a 
longer  growing  season.  Trees  that  are  June  budded  are 
ready  for  planting  the  following  fall. 


PEACH  277 

Soil. — The  opinion  is  current  that  the  peach  should  be 
planted  on  a  sandy  soil  or  some  type  of  the  lighter  soils. 
While  excellent  peaches  are  often  grown  on  this  type  of  soil  it 
does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  peach  cannot  be  success- 
fully grown  on  heavier  types  of  soil.  The  peach  will  do  well 
on  a  wide  range  of  soils,  including  even  some  of  the  moder- 
ately heavy  clay  loams.  To  say  that  any  particular  type  of 
soil  could  be  most  profitable  for  the  peach  is  impossible. 
Profitable  crops  are  grown  upon  the  lightest  sands  and  the 
heaviest  clays,  and  each  soil  produces  a  characteristic  type 
and  quality  of  fruit. 

The  soil  which  is  selected  should  be  well-drained  whatever 
the  type  is.  The  peach  will  not  thrive  on  poorly  drained 
soils.  The  soils  that  are  hard  and  impervious  to  water  must 
be  avoided.  They  should  be  moderately  fertile.  A  soil  rich 
in  nitrogen  is  not  so  desirable  because  it  produces  too  much 
foliage,  but  it  should  not  lack  plant  food  in  such  quantities 
as  to  stunt  the  growth  of  the  tree.  The  soils  in  which  alkali 
occurs  should  be  avoided  because  they  never  grow  good 
peaches. 

Site. — The  site  of  a  peach  orchard  is  equally  as  important 
as  the  soil.  The  peach  is  very  tender  and  great  care  must 
be  exercised  in  order  to  keep  it  from  being  frozen.  As  a 
general  proposition  a  site  that  is  elevated  considerably  above 
the  surrounding  country  or  that  is  adjacent  to  a  large  body 
of  water  is  preferable  for  a  peach  orchard.  Cold  air  always 
settles  to  the  lower  places,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  often  colder 
at  the  lower  elevations  than  it  is  at  the  higher  points  in  the 
same  locality.  A  large  body  of  water  also  influences  the 
climate  to  a  great  extent.  It  prevents  the  warming  up  of  the 
atmosphere  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  water  and  thus 
holds  back  the  vegetation  until  the  danger  of  frost  is  past 
and  also  delays  the  frost  in  the  fall  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  influence  of  the  water  is  probably  only  felt  for  several 
miles,  although  the  elevation  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
extent  of  the  influence  of  the  water. 

Planting. — The  ideal  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  peach 
tree  consists  in  deep  plowing  and  the  thorough  pulverization. 
Equally  as  good  a  preparation  should  be  given  to  the  land 
as  if  corn  were  to  be  planted. 


278  STONE  FRUITS 

Preliminary  to  the  digging  of  the  holes  for  the  trees  the 
grower  should  plow  one  or  two  furrows  as  deep  as  the  plow  will 
run  along  the  line  which  marks  each  row.  This  practice 
greatly  reduces  the  amount  of  digging  that  must  be  done. 
The  holes  should  be  broad  enough  to  admit  the  roots  without 
crowding.  The  trees  should  be  planted  2  or  3  inches  deeper 
than  they  stood  in  the  nursery  row. 

In  preparing  a  tree  for  planting  all  of  the  injured  and 
mutilated  roots  should  be  cut  off.  The  long,  slender  and 
irregular  roots  should  be  shortened  to  the  proper  length  to 
make  the  root  system  uniform. 

Unless  the  tree  is  exceptionally  large  all  of  the  branches 
should  be  removed,  leaving  only  a  single  unbranched  stem. 
The  stem  should  be  cut  back  to  the  desired  height  to  form 
the  head  of  the  tree.  The  height  ranges  from  18  to  30  inches, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  grower. 

As  a  rule,  only  thrifty,  well-grown,  one-year-old  trees 
should  be  planted.  Each  tree  should  be  free  from  injurious 
insect  pests  as  well  as  fungous  diseases. 

A  well-grown  tree  does  not  always  mean  the  largest  tree 
in  the  nursery,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  medium-sized  trees 
are  probably  fully  as  desirable  as  the  larger  ones.  A  tree  that 
has  a  well-developed  root  system  should  always  be  selected. 

The  exact  time  for  the  planting  of  the  peach  cannot  readily 
be  given.  In  general,  in  the  northern  section,  where  the 
winters  are  severe,  spring  planting  is  preferred.  The  planting 
should  begin  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  In  the 
middle  and  the  southern  latitude,  where  the  winters  are  mild 
and  where  the  fall  season  is  favorable  for  the  working  of  the 
ground,  fall  planting  is  generally  successful  and  is  preferred 
by  many  growers.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to  have  fall 
planted  trees  reestablish  some  root  action  in  their  new  loca- 
tion before  the  winter  begins. 

The  distance  apart  the  peach  is  planted  is  regulated  by 
the  topography  of  the  land,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the 
varietal  characteristics  of  the  tree.  The  most  common 
distances  are  18  x  18  feet,  18  x  20  feet  and  20  x  20  feet. 
Occasionally  trees  are  set  25  x  25  feet  apart,  and  this  distance 
probably  does  not  allow  any  more  space  than  the  trees  need. 


PEACH  279 

The  peach  is  usually  planted  by  the  square  system,  but  other 
systems  are  equally  as  good. 

Cultivation.- — Clean  culture  is  the  common  practice  in 
nearly  all  of  the  peach-growing  sections.  In  fact,  good 
cultivation  is  essential  to  the  continued  success  of  the  peach. 

The  peach  orchard  should  be  cultivated  throughout  the 
entire  season,  beginning  with  the  first  year  the  trees  are 
planted.  The  conditions  surrounding  the  trees  should 
determine  what  the  nature  of  the  tillage  should  be.  If  the 
soil  is  hard  and  the  cover  crop  heavy  it  will  be  necessary  to 
turn  the  soil  with  a  plow  and  follow  it  with  a  harrow  or  such 
other  implement  as  best  suits  the  individual  case.  If  the  soil 
is  light,  plowing  can  sometimes  be  omitted  and  some  other 
type  of  cultivation  used  to  thoroughly  pulverize  the  soil 
to  the  desired  depth.  The  soil  should  be  worked  with  some 
kind  of  a  tillage  implement  often  enough  to  keep  it  loose  and 
friable.  A  dust  mulch  3  or  4  inches  deep  is  valuable  in  holding 
the  moisture.  If  a  crust  forms  on  the  surface  it  should  be 
immediately  broken  up.  The  soil  should  be  worked  after 
every  rain. 

The  tillage  operations  should  continue  until  the  last  of 
July  or  the  first  of  August.  By  that  time  the  growth  will  be 
made  and  the  fruit  buds  formed  for  the  next  year's  crop. 
The  seed  for  cover  or  green  manure  crops  should  be  sown  at 
this  time,  which  should  be  turned  under  the  following  spring. 

Pruning. — The  peach  is  a  stronger  and  a  more  rapid  grower 
than  almost  any  of  the  other  fruits.  The  young  trees  are 
reduced  to  a  single  stem  or  whip  and  the  head  is  formed  from 
the  shoots  that  grow  upon  this  whip  the  first  year.  The  peach 
responds  readily  to  good  treatment  and  gives  much  pleasure 
to  the  pruner. 

The  object  of  the  pruner  in  pruning  the  peach  should  be  to 
cut  out  enough  wood  to  force  a  good  strong  growth  each  year, 
to  remove  surplus  fruiting  wood  and  to  give  the  tree  the 
desired  shape.  The  peach  bears  its  fruit  buds  in  the  axis 
of  the  leaves  and  the  fruit  is  borne  on  one-year-old  wood.  In 
removing  the  new  growth  some  branches  should  be  taken  out 
while  the  remainder  should  be  cut  back  to  remove  some  of 
the  fruit  buds  which  they  carry.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  how 


280 


STONE  FRUITS 


FIG.  115. — Peach  tree  before  pruning.     (After  Eustace,  Michigan 
Agriculture  College.) 


FIG.  116. — Peach  tree  after  pruning.     (After  Eustace,  Michigan 
Agriculture  College.) 


PEACH  281 

much  wood  should  be  removed  or  how  much  of  the  remainder 
should  be  cut  back.  Some  authorities  claim  about  three-fifths 
of  the  wood  is  the  proper  amount  to  remove*  The  heavier 
pruning  should  be  done  early  in  the  spring,  while  the  light 
pruning  should  be  done  earlier,  probably  after  danger  of  frost 
is  past.  The  fruit  should  be  kept  as  near  the  ground  as 
possible,  which  can  be  regulated  to  a  great  degree  by  pruning. 
The  fruiting  wood  can  usually  be  forced  to  develop  closer  to 
the  ground  if  the  top  is  cut  back.  As  the  trees  grow  older  the 
dehorning  of  the  plant  is  often  profitable.  In  dehorning  the 
tree  the  entire  top  is  cut  off,  leaving  only  stubs  remaining. 
The  stubs  will  throw  out  many  branches  which  will  form  a 
new  top.  A  few  of  the  branches  should  be  pruned  out.  This 
practice  lengthens  the  life  of  the  tree. 

Harvesting. — The  time  of  harvesting  the  peach  is  deter- 
mined by  the  distance  to  the  market  and  the  variety.  The 
tender  skinned  varieties  will  have  to  be  picked  sooner  than  the 
tough  skinned  sorts.  In  most  cases  the  peach  is  picked  while 
the  one  side  of  the  fruit  still  shows  a  little  green,  particularly 
if  it  is  to  be  shipped  any  distance.  For  home  consumption 
the  fruit  should  remain  on  the  tree  until  it  is  ripe  but  still 
firm,  so  that  the  halves  will  not  mash  when  they  are  cooked. 
Many  varieties  are  very  delicate  and  must  be  picked  at  a 
certain  stage  or  there  will  be  a  loss  from  overripeness. 
Experience  is  the  best  guide  for  determining  the  proper 
picking  time. 

The  careful  handling  of  the  fruit  is  necessary  in  order  to 
avoid  bruising.  The  fruit  should  be  placed  in  the  shade  until 
it  is  hauled  to  the  packing  shed.  A  specially  constructed 
wagon  should  be  provided  in  order  not  to  jar  and  bruise 
the  fruit. 

There  are  several  styles  of  packages.  The  different  pack- 
ages are  usually  characteristic  of  the  peach-growing  regions. 
The  bushel  basket,  the  half-bushel  basket,  the  Georgia 
carrier  and  the  six-basket  crate  are  the  most  common  types. 
The  Georgia  carrier  and  the  six-basket  crate  are  extensively 
used  by  some  growers,  but  the  bushel  basket  is  perhaps  the 
most  widely  employed.  The  ease  of  handling  the  bushel 
basket  is  no  doubt  the  reason  for  its  general  use. 


282  STONE  FRUITS 

The  fruit  should  be  graded  as  to  uniformity  in  color  and 
size  for  every  package.  The  grower  should  endeavor  to  make 
an  honest  as  well  as  an  attractive  pack,  and  the  fruit  should 
be  of  good  quality  throughout  the  package. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  peaches,  and  these 
are  usually  based  on  regional  differences.  The  adaptability 
of  varieties  to  different  regions  calls  for  some  consideration, 
but  it  is  usually  a  factor  that  is  less  pronounced  than  it  is 
with  many  other  fruits.  The  following  varieties  are  among 
the  most  important  and  the  most  widely  planted:  Elberta, 
Carman,  Early  Crawford,  Late  Crawford,  Salway,  Lemon, 
Cling,  Champion,  Mountain  Rose  and  Old  Mixon  Free. 
There  are  many  other  varieties  listed  and  suited  to  various 
regions  of  the  country,  but  they  are  not  so  widely  distributed. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH. 

The  peach  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  several  diseases  and 
insects.  This  plant  has  more  specific  diseases  and  insects 
which  are  characteristic  only  of  very  closely  related  plants 
than  almost  any  other  fruit.  Many  of  these  troubles  are  con- 
fined particularly  to  the  peach. 

Peach  Yellows. — The  peach  yellows  is  perhaps  the  most 
serious  disease  that  attacks  the  peach.  It  is  also  found  on  the 
almond,  the  apricot  and  the  nectarine. 

There  can  be  no  specific  cause  assigned  to  the  yellows,  but 
the  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  easily  recognized  by  the 
premature  ripening  of  the  fruit,  which  is  highly  colored,  and 
the  spotted  and  premature  unfolding  of  the  winter  buds.  The 
opening  of  the  leaf  buds  occurs  as  early  as  July  and  as  late 
as  November.  This  symptom  is  very  common  on  diseased 
trees  during  August,  September  and  October.  The  fruit  will 
ripen  from  one  to  six  weeks  in  advance  of  its  normal  season 
and  will  be  deficient  in  quality. 

The  yellows  is  a  contagious  disease  and  it  spreads  from 
one  tree  to  another.  The  disease  is  supposed  to  be  of  bacterial 
origin,  but  this  point  is  still  a  disputed  question. 

The  peach  yellows  must  be  controlled  by  preventive 
measures.  Spray  materials  are  not  effective  in  holding  this 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH 


283 


disease  in  check.  All  trees  that  show  symptoms  of  the 
yellows  should  be  cut  out  and  burned.  The  diseased  tree 
should  never  be  dragged  through  the  orchard  because  this 
practice  will  infect  more  trees,  but  should  be  cut  down  and 
burned  where  it  stood. 

Little  Peach. — The  disease  of  little  peach  is  also  of  obscure 
origin.  The  direct  cause  of  this  trouble  is  unknown,  but  it  is 
thought  to  be  similar  to  that  of  the  peach  yellows.  The 
symptoms  of  little  peach  are  similar  to  those  of  the  yellows, 
except  the  fruit  always  remains  small,  drys  up  finally  and 
becomes  worthless.  The  same  methods  for  the  control  of  the 
peach  yellows  must  be  used  for  the  control  of  the  little  peach. 


FIG.  117. — Peaches  entirely  destroyed  by  brown  rot.     (After  Scott  and 
Quaintance,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Brown  Rot. — The  brown  rot  of  the  peach  is  a  fungous 
disease  that  attacks  the  flowers,  the. twigs  and  the  fruit. 
It  is  the  most  destructive  to  the  fruit  and  becomes  most 
abundant  as  the  fruit  approaches  maturity.  If  the  weather 
conditions  are  favorable  for  the  spread  of  this  disease  often 


284 


STONE  FRUITS 


from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  crop  is  ruined  in  a  few 
days. 

The  disease  first  appears  as  small  brown  spots  on  the 
fruit,  which  rapidly  enlarge,  involving  the  entire  fruit  in  a 


FIG.  1 18. — Peach  leaf  curl.    (After  Wallace  and  Whetzel,  Cornell  University.) 

few  days.  It  has  been  proven  that  the  plum  curculio  is  very 
instrumental  in  the  spreading  of  this  disease.  The  brown  rot 
can  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  self-boiled  lime  sulphur. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  PEACH  285 

Eradicating  the  curculio  by  adding  arsenate  of  lead  to  the 
spray  mixture  is  also  recommended. 

Peach  Leaf  Curl. — The  peach  leaf  curl  is  a  peculiar  disease 
that  causes  the  leaves  to  curl  up  in  all  kinds  of  shapes.  It 
is  caused  by  a  fungous  growth.  This  disease  appears  peri- 
odically and  perhaps  the  weather  conditions  control  its 
appearance  to  a  certain  extent.  Damp,  cold  springs  favor 
its  development  and  the  disease  is  usually  worse  during  such 
years. 

The  loss  due  to  the  peach  leaf  curl  is  hard  to  estimate,  but 
authorities  are  agreed  that  it  reaches  into  the  millions  of 
dollars  each  year. 

The  peach  leaf  curl  can  be  largely  controlled  by  the  appli- 
cation of  some  fungicide,  preferably  Bordeaux  mixture,  during 
the  late  winter  or  early  spring  just  prior  to  the  opening  of  the 
buds.  The  application  of  the  fungicide  must  be  thorough, 
so  that  all  spores  are  killed  as  they  are  produced  or  as  growth 
starts. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  diseases  there  are 
several  less  important  ones  which  are  found  on  the  peach,  but 
which  are  controlled  by  carefully  following  out  the  spraying 
program. 

INSECTS  OF  THE  PEACH. 

The  peach  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  several  insects,  some 
of  which  require  special  means  of  control. 

Peach  Tree  Borer. — The  peach  tree  borer  is  found  in  every 
locality  where  peaches  are  grown.  It  is  a  native  insect.  The 
loss  due  to  this  insect  is  millions  of  dollars  every  year. 

The  adult  of  the  borer  is  a  moth,  the  male  and  the  female 
differing  widely  in  color.  The  male  has  four  transparent 
wings  with  a  metallic  color,  while  the  female  has  front  wings 
which  are  opaque  while  the  back  wings  are  opaque  only  over 
about  one-half  of  their  area,  the  remaining  half  being  trans- 
parent. 

The  damage  to  the  peach  is  done  by  the  larva  of  this  insect. 
The  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  larval  state  in  the  trunk 
of  the  tree.  Some  of  the  smaller  worms  pass  the  winter 
in  a  small  cocoon  protected  by  a  mass  of  gum  on  the  bark, 


286 


STONE  FRUITS 


usually  the  larvae  confine  their  work  to  the  trunk  or  the  roots 
of  the  tree,  a  short  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  but 
occasionally  they  are  found  5  or  6  inches  under  the  ground. 
When  the  larvae  are  full  grown  they  leave  their  burrows  and 
spin  a  cocoon,  coming  out  as  adult  insects  in  three  or  four 
weeks. 


FIG.  119. — Canker  on  the  limb  of  the  peach. 

The  only  sure  method  for  the  control  of  this  insect  is  to  dig 
the  larvae  out  of  their  burrows  with  a  sharp  knife  or  some 
similar  instrument.  A  wire  can  often  be  used  to  kill  the 
insects  in  their  burrows.  The  burrows  of  the  borers  are 
usually  indicated  by  conspicuous  masses  of  gum  together 
with  the  casting  and  chewings  of  the  insect.  After  the 


PLUM  287 

borers  are  dug  out,  which  should  be  done  some  time  in  June, 
a  small  mound  of  earth  should  be  pulled  up  around  the  trunk 
to  a  height  of  8  to  10  inches. 

Many  washes  and  disinfectants  have  been  used  from  time 
to  time,  but  all  of  these  have  to  be  handled  with  some  care, 
and  they  are  not  very  satisfactory. 

Peach  Louse. — The  peach  louse  sometimes  becomes  serious. 
The  usual  methods  of  control  for  all  of  the  plant  lice  are 
effective  against  this  species.  The  spraying  of  the  trees 
with  nicotine  products  will  give  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

San  Jose  Scale. — The  San  Jose  scale  often  becomes  trouble- 
some when  the  peach  is  grown  near  the  apple  or  the  pear. 
The  same  remedies  recommended  under  the  apple  for  the 
control  of  the  San  Jose  scale  should  be  used  for  the  peach. 

OUTLINE  FOR  SPRAYING  THE   PEACH. 

No.  of 
spray.  Time  to  spray.  Spray  materials. 

First  Before  the  buds  swell  early  in         4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture. 

the  spring 

Second         Just  after  blooming  when  the         4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  plus 
fruit  is  bursting  the  shucks  arsenate  of  lead  2  pounds 

to  50  gallons. 

Third  Two  or  three  weeks  after  the         Self-boiled  lime  sulphur;  arse- 

second  spray  nate   of  lead   2  pounds  to 

50  gallons  of  water  (impor- 
tant.) 

Fourth         About  one  month  before  the      '  Self-boiled  lime  sulphur, 
fruit  ripens 

The  trees  should  be  examined  carefully  every  spring  and 
fall  for  the  borer,  which  should  be  dug  out  whenever  it  is 
found.  Where  the  yellows  or  the  little  peach  is  present 
destroy  the  tree  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  discovered. 


PLUM. 

The  plum  is  a  very  old  fruit.  The  native  species  have  been 
found  growing  in  this  country  for  many  years.  As  early  as 
1524  foreign  explorers  of  America  tell  of  plums  which  were 
found  growing  wild  in  this  country  in  the  vicinity  of  New 
York.  A  little  later,  in  1539,  another  explorer  describes  the 
plum  growing  abundantly  in  the  region  of  Florida.  From 


288  STONE  FRUITS 

these  old  accounts,  it  would  seem  that  the  native  plum  has 
been  known  for  many  years,  and  some  of  our  best  varieties 
of  today  are  improvements  of  some  of  the  wild  sorts. 

Most  of  our  cultivated  plums  are  derived  from  several 
species  of  wild  plums.  The  European  plums  were  developed 
from  Prunus  domestica,  Prunus  insititia  and  Prunus  cera- 
sifera,  the  Japanese  plums  from  Prunus  triflora  and  the 
American  plums  from  Prunus  americana,  Prunus  nigra  and 
Prunus  hortulana,  while  the  Chinese  species,  Prunus  simonii, 
has  given  us  at  least  one  variety. 

The  European  plums  have  reached  a  higher  state  of 
development  than  either  the  American  or  the  Japanese 
sorts.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  European 
varieties  have  been  under  cultivation  longer  and  have  been 
more  systematically  improved. 

The  plums  are  divided  into  several  groups.  The  groups  are 
distinct  in  characteristics  while  the  varieties  in  each  group 
are  similar  to  each  other.  The  most  common  varieties  are 
the  Damson,  the  Yellow  Egg,  the  Diamond,  the  Bradshaw 
and  the  Lombard. 

Propagation. — The  plum  is  either  propagated  by  budding 
or  by  root  grafting.  Budding  is  more  generally  practised  and 
is  more  successful.  The  work  is  done  at  the  close  of  the 
active  growing  season,  which  is  either  in  August  or  early  in 
September.  The  stocks  for  the  propagation  of  the  plum 
differ  in  various  sections.  In  the  east  and  the  south  the 
Myrobalan  and  the  Marianna  plums  are  usually  employed 
as  stocks.  The  peach  is  sometimes  used  also.  In  other 
regions  the  native  seedlings  are  the  best  stocks  because  of 
their  hardiness  and  their  adaptability  to  the  locality. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  spring,  and  if  they  are  given 
good  care  and  attention  the  seedlings  will  usually  be  large 
enough  for  budding  by  the  following  August. 

There  is  some  discussion  as  to  whether  budding  or  grafting 
is  preferable,  although  in  practice  the  greatest  success  has 
been  obtained  by  budding.  The  shield  bud  is  the  form  always 
employed.  Some  propagators  use  the  whip  graft,  and  while 
the  plum  can  be  increased  by  this  method  there  are  many 
failures,  and  it  is  thought  that  budding  is  far  superior  to  that 
of  root  grafting. 


PLUM  289 

Some  species  of  plums,  and  particularly  the  Marianna,  grow 
very  easily  from  hard-wood  cuttings.  Many  cuttings  from 
these  species  are  made  every  year  and  are  used  for  stocks  on 
which  to  bud  the  named  varieties. 

Soil. — The  plum  will  succeed  on  any  kind  of  soil.  Next 
to  the  apple,  perhaps,  the  European  plum  can  be  profitably 
grown  on  a  greater  range  of  soils  than  almost  any  other  fruit. 
When  we  consider  the  American  and  the  Japanese  varieties 
it  becomes  an  easy  matter  to  select  a  plum  that  can  be 
grown  practically  everywhere. 

The  domestic  plums  generally  do  the  best  on  a  rather 
heavy  clay  loam.  If  this  class  of  soil  is  well  drained  and  com- 
paratively warm  it  is  also  an  ideal  soil  for  the  European 
varieties. 

The  Japanese  varieties  prefer  a  lighter  soil  than  the 
European  sorts.  A  light  sandy  loam  that  is  warm  and 
friable  is  best  suited  to  the  Japanese  varieties.  In  fact,  they 
will  do  comparatively  well  on  a  soil  that  is  largely  sand. 

The  Americana  and  the  Miner  groups  require  about  the 
same  kind  of  soil.  A  rich  heavy  loam  is  preferred.  A  small 
amount  of  sand  is  not  injurious  and  does  not  interfere  with 
their  growth  if  the  climate  is  favorable. 

The  Wild  Goose  types  and  their  close  relatives  have  a  dis- 
taste for  cold,  heavy,  clay  soils.  A  rich  sandy  loam  is  pref- 
erable, although  they  do  well  on  a  great  variety  of  the  looser 
types  of  soil. 

Planting. — The  selection  of  a  good  tree  should  receive  the 
first  attention  in  planting.  A  two-year-old  plum  tree  is 
planted  in  most  cases,  although  theie  are  certain  southern 
sections  where  one-year-old  Japanese  trees  are  large  enough 
to  plant.  All  trees  should  be  of  good  quality  and  healthy 
and  budded  on  the  stock  which  best  suits  your  individual 
requirements. 

The  distance  apart  for  planting  the  plum  varies  according 
to  the  variety,  the  soil  and  the  locality.  Where  the  ground 
is  rich  the  trees  must  be  set  farther  apart  than  where  the  soil 
is  poor.  Some  of  the  smaller  upright  growing  varieties  can 
be  set  15  x  18  feet  while  other  more  vigorous  growing  sort 
should  be  planted  18  x  20  feet  apart,  and  occasionally 
20  x  25  feet  is  not  too  much  space  for  the  trees. 
19 


290  STONE  FRUITS 

The  time  of  planting  is  regulated  by  the  location  and  in  a 
general  way  agrees  with  that  of  the  cherry.  There  seems  to 
be  no  advantage  in  spring  planting  over  fall  planting  if  the 
climatic  conditions  are  favorable  for  fall  planting.  If  the 
soil  is  well-prepared  and  the  trees  are  well-ripened  they 
may  be  set  in  the  fall  with  good  success.  If  the  trees  are  not 
in  a  well-ripened  and  mature  condition,  spring  planting  is 
preferred.  In  selecting  and  planting  the  different  varieties 
they  should  be  mixed  with  reference  to  cross-pollination. 
Many  varieties  are  sterile  or  partially  sterile,  and  if  they  are 
planted  in  a  solid  block  with  no  other  fertile  varieties  they 
will  never  set  fruit.  This  is  a  very  important  phase  of  the 
industry,  and  it  should  be  thoroughly  understood  before 
planting  the  plum. 

Cultivation. — The  plums  grow  and  thrive  better  when  the 
trees  are  cultivated.  The  same  conditions  suggested  for  the 
apple  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  plum.  The  orchard  should 
be  plowed  in  the  spring.  The  soil  should  be  cultivated  at 
frequent  intervals  throughout  the  spring  and  the  summer 
until  the  middle  of  July  or  the  first  of  August,  when  culti- 
vation should  stop.  The  orchard  should  then  be  sown  with 
some  cover  crop.  The  cover  crop  will  use  up  the  surplus 
moisture  and  the  plant  food  which  will  check  the  growth  of 
the  trees  and  they  will  lipen  their  wood  before  cold  weather 
arrives  and  will  pass  the  winter  in  good  shape. 

The  cover  crops  which  are  selected  depend  upon  the  soil, 
the  locality  and  the  condition  of  the  trees.  If  the  soil  is 
sandy  and  the  orchard  located  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
country,  crimson  clover,  cow  peas  or  soy  beans  are  perhaps 
the  best.  If  the  soil  is  of  the  heavier  types  and  the  orchard 
located  in  the  north,  rye,  buckwheat,  peas  or  mammoth  clover 
is  preferred.  On  sandy  soils  in  the  north  hairy  vetch  is 
excellent.  The  seed  of  all  cover  crops  should  be  sown  thickly 
so  that  a  good  stand  will  be  obtained.  A  common  mistake  is 
to  have  the  cover  crop  too  thin  and  little  good  is  derived  from 
its  use. 

Thinning. — Thinning  is  important  with  many  fruits,  but 
perhaps  more  so  with  the  plum  than  with  any  other.  Many 
of  the  American  and  the  Japanese  plums  have  a  great 


PLUM  291 

tendency  to  overbear.  Sometimes  varieties  of  these  plums 
will  set  three  or  four  times  as  many  fruits  as  the  tree  can 
mature,  and  they  will  often  do  this  year  after  year.  This 
overbearing  tends  to  weaken  the  trees  and  many  are  killed 
by  it. 

The  fruit  should  be  thinned  immediately  after  the  June 
drop.  Thinning  is  usually  done  by  hand,  and  although  it 
seems  a  rather  expensive  task  it  will  repay  the  grower. 
Good  judgment  must  be  used  in  thinning  and  the  number  of 
fruits  allowed  to  remain  will  usually  vary  with  every  grower. 
The  distance  between  the  plums  will  depend  upon  several 
factors,  but  a  conservative  distance  is  from  3  to  5  inches 
between  each  fruit  on  the  limb. 

Pruning. — The  plum  trees  vary  widely  in  their  habit  of 
growth  and  their  fruit  bearing.  Owing  to  this  great  varia- 
tion no  well-defined  system  of  pruning  will  suit  all  types. 
Many  plums  resemble  the  apricot  in  their  fruit-bearing 
habits,  but  still  many  more  are  like  the  cherry  and  still 
others  show  more  of  an  inclination  to  bear  only  branch  buds 
on  the  new  wood. 

The  plum  is  subject  to  sun  scald  on  its  trunk  and  therefore 
should  be  headed  low.  The  young  trees  of  all  types  will 
need  some  cutting  back  and  thinning  out  to  develop  a  good 
tree. 

Some  trees  will  require  pruning  to  spread  them.  As  the 
trees  become  older  and  more  mature  very  little  if  any  pruning 
will  be  necessary.  Occasionally  some  thinning  out  of  water 
sprouts  or  the  removal  of  a  branch  which  is  rubbing  will  be 
necessary,  but  usually  no  severe  pruning  will  be  needed. 

Harvesting. — The  plums  are  perhaps  less  liable  to  injury 
from  handling  than  either  the  peach  or  the  cherry.  As  a  rule 
the  skin  of  the  plum  is  tough  enough  to  withstand  con- 
siderable handling  without  serious  injury.  The  plum,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  bruised  or  the  skin  broken,  because  this 
will  cause  the  fruit  to  decay. 

Some  varieties  of  plums  color  up  long  before  they  are  ripe, 
and  it  requires  a  little  experience  to  determine  the  exact  time 
for  harvesting.  The  plum,  however,  should  not  be  picked 
until  it  is  almost  ripe,  although  it  should  not  remain  on  the 
tree  so  long  that  it  will  be  injured  in  handling  or  shipping. 


292  STONE  FRUITS 

The  fruit  is  usually  picked  with  the  stem  attached.  The 
plums  are  often  very  uniform  in  size,  although  occasionally 
they  require  some  grading.  The  grading  is  more  often 
necessary  with  the  larger  sorts  than  it  is  with  the  smaller 
varieties.  The  large  prune  types  are  sometimes  marketed  in 
boxes  similar  to  those  of  the  cherry,  while  the  smaller  varieties 
are  usually  sold  in  half  bushel  baskets,  and  occasionally  in 
grape  baskets.  The  size  of  the  plum  determines  to  a  large 
extent  the  type  of  package  in  which  it  is  marketed.  In  some 
cases  the  plums  are  sorted  and  graded  and  are  then  packed 
in  the  four-basket  crate. 

Varieties. — The  selection  of  the  proper  varieties  is  pri- 
marily a  local  question.  The  planter  will  do  well  to  consult 
some  successful  grower  in  his  local  community. 

Many  varieties  of  native  plums  have  originated  mainly 
in  the  Mississippi  valley  and  in  some  of  the  southern  regions. 
Iowa,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota  and  Texas  have  produced 
by  far  the  greatest  number  of  good  varieties,  largely  from 
native  stock. 

To  select  a  list  which  will  fit  all  sections  of  the  country 
would  be  impossible,  but  the  following  varieties  have  a  some- 
what wider  range  than  many  others:  Damson,  Burbank, 
De  Sota,  Hawkeye,  Lombard,  Diamond,  Abundance  and 
Wild  Goose.  Many  local  varieties  are  good,  and  in  regions 
where  these  do  well  they  should  be  selected. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM. 

The  plum  is  affected  by  practically  the  same  diseases  as  the 
cherry.  The  brown  rot  sometimes  known  as  the  ripe  rot  of 
the  plum,  is  perhaps  the  most  destructive  (see  description 
under  Cherry).  The  black  knot  of  the  plum  is  the  same  as 
found  on  the  cherry.  The  shot-hole  fungus  which  attacks  the 
cherry  is  likewise  found  on  the  plum.  These  diseases  are 
controlled  in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  cherry. 

Gummosis. — This  trouble  seems  to  be  more  prevalent  on 
the  plum  than  upon  the  other  stone  fruits,  although  it  is 
found  upon  the  cherry  and  the  peach  as  well  as  upon  the 
plum. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM  293 

The  symptoms  of  gummosis  is  the  accumulation  of  a 
gummy  exudation  on  the  trunk  and  the  branches  of  the  tree. 
The  gum  at  first  is  light  colored  and  soft,  but  later  turns 
a  dark  yellowish  color  and  becomes  hard.  This  gummy 
material  accumulates  in  large  quantities  at  certain  points, 
particularly  in  crotches  and  places  where  a  limb  has  been 
split.  Small  patches  are  usually  found  scattered  over  the 
trees  at  many  points. 


FIG.  120. — Black  knot  of  the  plum.     (New  Jersey  Agriculture  Experiment 

Station.) 


The  cause  of  this  trouble  is  due  to  a  number  of  things  and 
in  reality  is  only  an  attempt  by  nature  to  protect  a  wound  on 
the  plant.  Borers,  insect  injuries,  splits  or  any  injury  to  the 
tree  will  often  cause  the  plum  to  exude  this  gummy  material. 
Usually  no  great  injury  results  from  its  presence,  and  the  best 
way  to  get  rid  of  it  is  to  remove  the  primary  cause,  whatever 
that  may  be. 


294  STONE  FRUITS 

Scab. — The  scab  on  the  plum  is  a  disease  somewhat  similar 
to  that  found  on  the  apple.  The  scab  of  the  plum  is  also 
found  on  the  peach  and  the  apricot.  The  disease  is  char- 
acterized by  numerous  small,  circular,  dark-colored  spots, 
usually  found  on  one  side  of  the  fruit,  but  sometimes  it 
covers  the  entire  fruit.  The  twigs  and  the  leaves  are  also 
affected.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  usually  able  to  hold  this 
disease  in  check. 

INSECTS  OF  THE  PLUM. 

The  plum  is  attacked  by  several  insects,  some  of  which 
are  particularly  destructive  to  it  alone  like  the  plum  curculio, 
while  others  are  more  or  less  destructive  to  all  stone  fruits. 
The  San  Jose  scale  and  the  fruit  Lecanium  scale  are  some- 
times particularly  troublesome. 

Curculio. — The  plum  curculio  is  the  worst  insect  enemy 
of  the  plum.  The  curculio  is  primarily  an  enemy  of  the  stone 
fruits,  but  also  attacks  the  apple,  the  pear  and  the  quince. 
It  is  by  far  the  most  destructive  insect  with  which  the  grower 
of  the  stone  fruits  has  to  contend.  In  some  regions  it  often 
destroys  the  entire  crop  in  an  unprotected  orchard. 

The  curculio  is  a  small  snout  beetle  about  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  mottled  with  black,  gray  and  brown.  The 
beetles  attack  the  fruit  as  soon  as  it  is  set.  Two  kinds  of 
punctures  are  made — those  for  the  reception  of  the  egg  and 
those  for  feeding. 

The  feeding  punctures  are  only  small  holes,  which  are 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  deep.  The  egg-laying  punc- 
tures are  much  different.  A  small  hole  is  made  in  the  fruit 
with  the  snout  and  the  egg  is  laid  in  this  hole.  After  the 
egg  has  been  deposited  the  female  cuts  a  crescent-shaped 
slit  under  the  egg,  to  protect  it  from  injury  while  the  plum 
is  growing.  This  way  of  depositing  the  egg  allows  it  to 
develop  in  a  flap  of  flesh.  The  egg  laying  continues  over  a 
long  period  and  sometimes  it  lasts  throughout  the  entire 
season.  However,  in  most  cases  the  greater  number  of  eggs 
are  laid  the  first  month  after  the  females  come  out  of  their 
winter  quarters. 

The  first  step  in  the  control  of  this  insect  is  to  clean  up 


INSECTS  OF  THE  PLUM  295 

and  burn  all  rubbish.    The  hibernating  quarters  should  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  removal  of  everything  that  will 


FIG.  121. — Plum  curculio  on  a  young  peach.     (Quaintance,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 


FIG.  122. — Plum  showing  crescent-shaped,  egg-laying  punctures. 
(Quaintance,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

give  the  insects  shelter  over  winter.    The  trees  should  be 
pruned  so  as  to  admit  plenty  of  light  to  the  interior  branches. 


296  STONE  FRUITS 

The  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation  of  the  ground  while 
the  pupa  is  still  in  the  soil  is  of  great  value.  The  cultivation 
should  begin  in  the  first  part  of  July  and  continue  to  the  first 
of  August  in  the  north,  but  it  must  begin  somewhat  earlier 
in  the  south. 

One  of  the  earliest  methods  of  control  for  the  curculio  was 
by  jarring.  This  method  was  the  chief  means  of  control  for 
many  years  and  it  is  still  practised  extensively  where  only  a 
few  trees  are  treated.  In  order  to  control  the  curculio  by 
jarring  a  sheet  is  first  spread  on  the  ground  under  the  tree. 
The  tree  is  then  suddenly  jolted  by  hitting  the  trunk  with 
the  end  of  a  padded  mallet.  The  beetles  when  suddenly 
disturbed  curl  up  and  fall  on  the  sheet  and  can  then  be  col- 
lected and  destroyed.  The  jarring,  to  be  the  most  effective, 
should  be  done  early  in  the  morning  when  the  beetles  are  less 
active. 

The  jarring  has  gradually  been  replaced  by  spraying  in  the 
larger  orchard  because  of  the  cheaper  cost. 

The  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  either  alone  or  com- 
bined with  a  fungicide  has  now  come  to  be  the  most  favorite 
method  of  controlling  the  curculio.  The  spraying  of  the 
plum  is  somewhat  more  difficult  than  most  of  the  other 
fruits,  but  many  growers  believe  that  the  result  justifies  the 
practice.  Two  applications  are  usually  made,  the  first  soon 
after  the  petals  fall  and  the  second  from  a  week  to  ten  days 
later.  Arsenate  of  lead  applied  at  the  rate  of  about  2J  pounds 
to  50  gallons  is  effective.  This  can  be  added  to  either  lime 
sulphur  or  a  2-2-50  Bordeaux  mixture. 


OUTLINE  FOR  SPRAYING  THE  PLUM. 

No.  of 

spray.  Time  to  spray.  Spray  materials. 

First  Just  before  the  blossoms  open  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  or 

lime  sulphur  1  to  40. 

Second  Just  after  the  blossoms  fall  Commercial  lime  sulphur  1  to 

50  or  self-boiled  lime  sul- 
phur, plus  2  pounds  arsen- 
ate of  lead  to  50  gallons. 

Third  Two  weeks  after  the  second  Same  as  second. 

Fourth         About  the  middle  of  June  Same  as  second. 

Fifth  Late  July  or  early  August  Self-boiled  lime  sulphur  or  am- 

moniacal  copper  carbonate. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  297 

If  the  plant  lice  appear  spray  the  trees  with  Black  Leaf 
40  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to  500  parts  of  water. 

Cut  out  and  burn  all  knots  whenever  they  are  seen. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  stone  fruits. 

2.  Why  are  these  fruits  called  stone  fruits? 

3.  How  does  the  sweet  cherry  differ  from  the  sour  cherry? 

4.  Why  is  the  cherry  usually  propagated  by  budding? 

5.  How  does  the  soil  for  the  cherry  differ  from  that  of  the  peach? 

6.  What  conditions  influence  the  distance  apart  the  cherry  should   be 
planted? 

7.  What  determines  the  time  for  planting  young  cherry  trees? 

8.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  the  cherry. 

9.  Name  three  sweet  and  three  sour  cherries  for  home  planting. 

10.  Discuss  the  brown  rot  of  the  cherry  and  give  the  best  remedy  for  its 
control. 

1 1.  How  is  the  black  knot  of  the  cherry  controlled? 

12.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  cherry. 

13.  What  factors  prove  that  the  peach  is  a  very  old  fruit? 

14.  Discuss  the  propagation  of  the  peach. 

15.  Has  the  soil  and  the  site  of  a  peach  orchard  any  relation  to  each  other? 

16.  What  type  of  soil  is  preferable  for  the  peach?     Why? 

17.  Discuss  the  preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting  the  peach. 

18.  What  treatment  should  be  given  the  young  peach  tree  before  planting? 

19.  What  determines  the  distance  in  setting  out  the  peach? 

20.  How  do  the  peach  yellows  differ  from  the  little  peach? 

21.  What  is  used  for  the  control  of  the  peach-leaf  curl? 

22.  How  can  the  peach-tree  borer  be  exterminated? 

23.  Why  is  it  impossible  to  control  the  borer  with  an  insecticide? 

24.  Give  the  spraying  outline  for  the  peach. 

25.  How  does  the  plum  compare  in  age  with  the  peach? 

26.  How  does  the  propagation  of  the  plum  differ  from  that  of  the  peach  or 
the  cherry? 

27.  Discuss  the  methods  of  planting  the  plum.    • 

28.  What  is  the  value  of  thinning  the  fruit  of  the  plum? 

29.  Name  several  varieties  that  are  generally  grown. 

30.  Discuss  the  diseases  common  to  the  plum?    What   remedies    are 
advised? 

31.  Discuss  the  plum  curculio.     How  is  it  controlled? 

32.  Give  the  spray  outline  for  the  plum. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
THE  CITRUS  FRUITS. 

THE  citrus  fruits  include  the  orange,  lemon,  grape  fruit, 
tangerine,  kumquat  and  lime.  All  of  these  fruits  are  grown 
in  the  citrus  belt,  but  the  oranges,  lemons  and  the  grape 
fruit  are  the.  most  important  of  the  citrus  fruits. 

The  citrus  industry  is  confined  to  certain  definite  regions 
of  the  United  States.  The  citrus  regions  are  located  in 
California,  Florida,  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  but  by 
far  the  larger  commercial  plantings  are  found  in  California 
and  in  Florida.  The  original  home  of  the  citrus  fruit  was  in 
India  and  the  Malay  Archipelago,  but  today  the  great 
bulk  of  the  oranges  which  supply  the  markets  of  the  world 
are  produced  in  California,  Florida,  Spain,  Palestine,  Aus- 
tralia, Italy  and  Japan.  Certain  parts  of  Mexico  produce 
citrus  fruit  to  a  limited  extent,  but  they  seem  to  lack  good 
shipping  qualities. 

The  citrus  fruit  was  first  introduced  into  this  country  in 
southern  California.  The  seed  was  brought  into  this  state 
from  the  lower  peninsula  of  California  by  the  early  Spanish 
settlers.  These  settlers  not  only  brought  the  citrus  fruit 
but  they  introduced  many  other  tropical  and  semitropical 
fruits  such  as  figs,  grapes,  olives  and  dates. 

Orange. — The  orange  is  divided  into  several  species,  some 
of  which  are  edible,  as  the  sweet  oranges,  and  others,  the 
sour  oranges,  which  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  certain 
oils  and  other  products. 

The  sweet  orange  is  the  one  which  is  commonly  known  and 
which  is  used  extensively  for  the  table.  The  sweet  orange 
includes  many  varieties.  The  Navel  and  the  Valencia  are 
the  most  important  varieties,  although  there  is  a  long  list, 
and  some  give  excellent  promise  for  the  production  of  superior 
fruit. 


LEMON  299 

The  sour  orange  is  used  principally  as  stock  on  which  to 
graft  the  sweet  varieties.  The  fruit  of  the  sour  orange  is 
not  edible,  but  it  is  used  to  some  extent  for  flavoring.  The 
sour  orange  is  valuable  as  a  stock  because  of  its  resistance 
to  the  foot  rot  and  the  gum  diseases. 

Grape  Fruit. — Technically  the  term  grape  fruit  is  incor- 
rect, but  it  has  gained  so  much  prestige  on  the  market  that 
it  will  in  all  probability  remain.  The  correct  name  of  this 
fruit  is  pomela.  The  grape  fruit  is  usually  a  prolific  bearer. 
The  fruit  is  gaining  rapidly  in  popularity  and  more  of  it  is 
consumed  every  year. 

Kumquat. — The  kumquat  is  a  small  yellow  citrus  fruit 
resembling  a  small  orange.  It  is  sometimes  called  golden 
orange.  The  fruit  is  often  used  for  decorating  and  the  pulp 
of  the  fruit  for  preserving. 

Lime. — The  lime  is  a  small  yellow  citrus  fruit  resembling 
a  small  lemon.  It  is  classed  as  a  shrub,  but  when  it  is  given 
room  to  grow  it  forms  a  small  tree.  The  lime  is  the  most 
tender  of  the  citrus  fruits,  and  it  is  killed  back  by  a  slight  frost 
but  usually  sprouts  up  vigorously  the  next  year.  The  skin 
of  the  lime  is  thin  and  of  a  lemon-yellow  color.  The  pulp 
is  a  pale  green  and  is  filled  with  a  very  sharp  acid  juice. 
The  juice  and  the  pulp  of  the  lime  are  better  for  most  purposes 
than  that  of  the  lemon,  and  it  is  used  in  preference  to  the 
lemon  by  people  in  tropical  countries.  The  lime  is  now 
found  on  most  of  our  important  northern  markets,  due  to 
the  better  transportation  facilities. 

Lemon. — The  lemon  is  one  of  the  best-known  citrus  fruits. 
While  the  lemon  is  not  as  extensively  cultivated  as  the 
orange  it  is  probably  equally  as  valuable.  The  lemon  is 
gaining  in  popularity  in  the  citrus  regions  and  it  is  now 
being  planted  more  than  formerly.  The  lemon  is  supposed 
to  have  originated  from  the  citron,  and  it  was  first  intro- 
duced into  Palestine  and  Egypt  in  the  tenth  century  and 
into  Europe  at  the  tune  of  the  crusades.  The  lemon  trees 
are  faster  growing  than  the  orange  trees,  and  they  are 
usually  more  productive  and  will  stand  more  neglect.  The 
lemon  includes  both  the  sweet  and  the  sour  types. 


300 


CITRUS  FRUITS 


Propagation. — The  citrus  fruits  are  usually  propagated  by 
budding.  Although  a  few  varieties  can  be  grown  with  some 
success  by  grafting,  cutting  and  layering  these  methods 
are  not  to  be  generally  recommended.  Occasionally  the 
lemon  can  be  grown  from  cuttings,  but  the  trees  are  rarely 
ever  successful.  The  orange  cutting  can  rarely  ever  be  made 
to  take  root,  and  this  method  of  propagation  should  not  be 
considered. 


FIG.  123. — Making  a  new  top  on  a  citrus  tree. 

The  shield  or  T-bud  is  universally  used  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  citrus  fruits.  The  success  of  this  method  is 
largely  dependent  upon  the  proper  selection  of  the  budding 
wood.  Citrus  buds  should  be  cut  from  round  plump  wood 
taken  from  fruiting  branches.  Suitable  wood  of  this  char- 
acter is  difficult  to  find  on  the  orange  but  it  is  more  plentiful 
on  the  lemon.  The  orange  tree  from  which  the  buds  are  to  be 
selected  must  be  prepared  a  year  in  advance.  The  prepara- 
tion of  the  tree  consists  in  systematically  pruning  the 


PROPAGATION 


301 


branches  to  a  given  length  and  causing  healthy,  plump  buds 
to  form. 

The  bud-sticks  are  usually  all  cut  at  one  time  and  stored 
until  they  are  used.  It  is  thought  by  some  nurserymen 
that  bud-sticks  which  have  been  stored  produce  a  larger 
percentage  of  buds  that  will  grow.  Stored  bud-sticks  pro- 
duce a  greater  percentage  of  uniform  trees  because  the  buds 
seem  to  mature  in  some  way  during  storage.  The  bud- 
sticks  are  tied  in  bundles  and  either  packed  in  damp  sand, 
sawdust  or  damp  moss  until  they  are  used.  The  damp  moss 
or  sawdust  is  preferred  by  most  growers,  because  the  sand 
has  a  tendency  to  dull  the  budding  knife.  The  bud-sticks 
should  have  the  leaves  pruned  off,  leaving  a  little  of  the 
leaf  stem  to  serve  as  a  handle  with  which  to  hold  the  bud. 


FIG.  124. — The  method  of  top  working  a  citrus  orchard. 

The  budding  of  the  citrus  fruit  is  usually  performed  during 
November  or  December  in  those  regions  where  a  more  or 
less  definite  winter  occurs.  This  is  called  dormant  budding. 
If  any  buds  fail  to  grow  from  dormant  budding  or  are  killed 
back  by  the  winter  then  spring  budding  is  performed.  Spring 
budding  should  be  done  after  a  vigorous  growth  has  started. 
However,  budding  can  usually  be  performed  at  any  time 
of  the  year  when  the  bark  peels  or  separates  easily  from  the 
wood. 


302  CITRUS  FRUITS 

Soil. — The  citrus  fruits  are  very  cosmopolitan  with  regard 
to  soil.  In  California  as  well  as  in  Florida  and  other  citrus 
regions  the  citrus  fruits  are  grown  on  a  great  variety  of 
soils,  ranging  from  light  sandy  soil  through  loams  to  black 
heavy,  adobe  soils.  There  are  probably  no  other  fruit  trees 
which  are  so  plastic  and  which  will  adapt  themselves  with 
such  ease  as  to  grow  on  almost  any  type  of  soil.  The  de- 
termining factor  in  the  soil  seems  to  be  its  physical  con- 
dition and  where  this  is  good  the  citrus  fruit  is  almost  sure 
to  grow  on  any  soil.  From  the  standpoint  of  cultivation 
and  ease  of  handling  the  soft  sandy  loams  should  be  pre- 
ferred over  the  sticky,  heavier  soils. 

The  subsoil  perhaps  influences  the  growth  of  the  citrus 
fruits  to  a  greater  extent  than  does  the  top  soil.  In  many 
cases  the  layer  of  soil  just  below  the  top  soil  varies  in  thick- 
ness from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet.  Sometimes  this  sub- 
soil is  so  hard  and  so  firm  as  to  be  impervious  to  water. 
Not  only  does  it  prevent  the  water  from  soaking  away  or 
rising  from  lower  levels,  but  it  is  so  hard  that  the  roots  of 
the  plants  cannot  penetrate  it.  On  such  a  soil  the  root 
development  of  the  tree  is  greatly  restricted. 

Sometimes  the  subsoil  is  too  loose  and  open  and  unretentive 
of  moisture.  This  condition  gives  a  deficiency  of  plant 
food  and  a  lack  of  water. 

A  good  soil  then  for  the  citrus  tree  may  be  of  any  type, 
but  preferably  a  sandy  loam  which  should  be  at  least  4  or 
5  feet  deep.  It  must  be  well  drained  and  the  subsoil  should 
neither  be  too  hard  nor  very  loose. 

Cultivation.- — Good  preparation  of  the  soil  is  essential  if 
profitable  crops  are  to  be  grown.  The  soil  should  be  thor- 
oughly plowed  and  worked  into  a  very  fine  state  before 
any  trees  are  planted.  After  the  trees  are  set,  the  soil 
should  be  plowed  thoroughly  once  a  year,  preferably  in 
March  or  April.  At  this  time  the  cover  crop  should  be 
turned  under.  The  plowing  should  be  completed  before  the 
tree  comes  into  full  bloom,  in  order  to  avoid  the  cutting 
of  the  roots  at  this  critical  time.  The  depth  of  plowing 
should  vary  with  each  year  so  as  to  prevent  any  hard  layer 
from  forming  by  the  pressure  of  the  plow. 


PLANTING 


303 


The  proper  cultivation  determines  the  success  of  the 
orchard.  It  makes  little  difference  whether  the  trees  are 
grown  on  irrigated  land  or  on  dry  land,  frequent  cultiva- 
tions should  be  given  to  the  soil.  The  soil  should  be  stirred 
to  a  depth  of  about  4  inches  after  each  irrigation  or  after 
each  r-ain.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  cultivate  until 
after  the  soil  has  dried  out,  or  until  it  is  in  the  proper  condi- 
tion for  cultivation.  If  the  soil  is  cultivated  when  it  is  too 
wet  it  will  be  hard  and  lumpy. 


FIG.  125. — Protecting  a  young  orange  tree  from  the  hot  sun. 


The  tillage  implement  should  be  selected  with  reference 
to  the  type  of  soil.  One  type  of  soil  will  require  one  kind 
of  a  cultivator  and  another  type  of  soil  will  need  a  different 
tool. 

Planting. — The  planting  of  a  citrus  tree  is  similar  to  that 
of  any  other  fruit  tree.  The  general  conditions  concerning 
the  preparation  of  the  soil,  the  digging  of  the  holes,  etc., 
are  identical  to  those  of  other  fruits. 

The  distance  to  set  the  trees  is  determined  by  the  variety 
as  well  as  by  the  fertility  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  The 
smaller  growing  varieties  such  as  the  Mandarin  oranges  and 


304  CITRUS  FRUITS 

the  limes  should  not  number  more  than  200  trees  to  the  acre. 
This  will  mean  that  the  trees  should  be  set  about  12  to  18 
feet  apart.  The  larger  growing  varieties  are  usually  planted 
farther  apart.  Usually  about  100  trees  to  the  acre  is  the 
proper  number,  which  means  the  trees  must  stand  in  the 
neighborhood  of  18  to  24  feet  apart. 

Harvesting  and  Curing.- — The  citrus  fruits  are  harvested 
throughout  the  year.  There  is  considerable  difference 
observed  in  the  picking  and  the  packing  of  the  different 
citrus  fruits.  Some  fruits  are  picked  while  they  are  green 
and  allowed  to  cure  before  they  are  shipped,  while  others 
are  picked  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  and  shipped  at  once. 
All  citrus  fruits  must  be  handled  with  care,  and  precaution 
taken  to  see  that  thorns  do  not  fall  into  the  picking  vessel. 
Such  thorns  or  sharp  twigs  will  scratch  the  skin  of  the  fruit 
and  damage  it. 

In  picking  citrus  fruit  some  precaution  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  no  imperfect  specimens  are  included  in  the 
package.  The  fruit  must  be  separated  from  the  tree  by 
means  of  a  clipper  which  cuts  the  stem  off  close  to  the  fruit. 
The  picked  fruit  should  be  placed  in  baskets  or  crates. 
The  fruit  should  be  taken  to  the  packing  house  with  the 
greatest  care  and  permitted  to  cure  before  it  is  fit  to  pack 
for  shipment.  After  the  fruit  has  been  picked  for  some 
time  the  skin  will  toughen  and  the  fruit  will  shrink,  and 
then  it  can  be  handled  with  less  danger  of  being  injured. 
The  curing  time  varies  with  the  different  citrus  fruits  and 
ranges  from  several  days  for  the  orange  to  several  weeks  for 
the  lemon.  After  the  fruit  has  cured  properly  it  is  graded 
and  packed. 

The  oranges  are  harvested  throughout  the  year.  The 
Valencia  are  the  summer  oranges  and  they  are  harvested 
from  June  to  November,  while  the  Navel  or  winter  oranges 
are  picked  from  November  to  May.  The  seasons  for  both 
oranges  somewhat  overlap. 

The  oranges  should  be  picked  with  a  great  deal  of  care 
so  that  all  bruises  or  cuts  on  the  skin  will  be  avoided.  Any 
abrasion  of  the  skin  admits  the  germs  of  decay  and  the 
fruit  is  ruined. 


HARVESTING  AND  CURING  305 

The  oranges  in  some  cases  must  be  colored  or  cured  by 
sweating.  The  sweat-room  is  an  air-tight,  fire-proof  room 
built  separately  from  the  main  packing-house.  The  heat 
is  provided  by  kerosene  stoves  which  do  not  give  complete 
combustion.  The  hot  gases  and  water  vapor  fill  the  sweating 
room  and  envelop  the  fruit.  The  temperature  is  controlled 
by  ventilators.  In  the  sweating  process  the  fruit  is  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  100°  F.  The  time  of  curing  varies  from 
three  to  five  days  or  until  the  oranges  are  properly  colored. 

The  harvesting  and  the  curing  of  the  lemon  differs  greatly 
from  that  of  the  orange.  The  lemons  are  usually  picked  from 
ten  to  twelve  times  a  year.  The  heaviest  pickings  of  the 
lemon  come  in  March  and  April,  while  the  lightest  pickings 
come  in  August  and  in  September.  This  roughly  divides 
the  lemons  into  a  fall  and  a  spring  crop.  The  summer  crop 
is  usually  rushed  to  the  market  while  the  winter  crop  is  held 
until  later  in  the  season. 

The  method  of  picking  the  lemons  from  the  tree  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  oranges.  The  chief  difference  between  the 
two  fruits  is  that  the  lemons  are  always  picked  by  the  use 
of  a  ring.  The  lemons  are  harvested  while  green  and  there- 
fore a  ring  is  used  to  determine  the  size  and  maturity  of  the 
fruit.  The  picking  rings  are  made  of  iron  wire.  The  rings 
vary  slightly  in  size  and  during  the  summer  a  ring  2J  inches 
in  diameter  is  used  while  during  the  winter  a  larger  size, 
namely,  2f  inches,  in  diameter  is  used.  The  larger  ring  is 
used  in  the  winter  because  the  fruit  will  be  kept  longer  and 
a  greater  amount  of  shrinkage  will  take  place. 

After  the  lemons  reach  the  packing-house  they  must  go 
through  a  curing  process.  The  curing  is  done  by  subjecting 
the  fruit  to  a  sweating.  The  sweating  of  the  lemons  is  for 
the  purpose  of  quickly  changing  the  green  color  to  a  light 
yellow  color. 

The  lemons  should  be  swealed  alternately  for  the  best 
results.  The  air  of  the  sweating-room  should  be  kept  satu- 
rated with  moisture  all  the  time.  If  the  air  is  allowed  to 
become  dry  the  lemons  shrivel  quickly.  The  temperature 
of  the  sweating  chamber  should  be  held  around  90°  F. 

The  winter  lemons  are  usually  stored  and  held  for  spring 
20 


306 


CITRUS  FRUITS 


trade.  Therefore  the  winter  lemons  are  not  treated  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  summer  lemons.  Instead  of  sweating 
the  fruit  and  hastening  the  curing  the  lemons  are  prevented 
from  sweating.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  brought  to  the  pack- 
ing-house it  is  washed  in  a  very  weak  solution  of  copper 
sulphate.  This  solution  is  made  by  adding  1  pound  of  cop- 
per sulphate  to  1000  gallons  of  water  in  the  morning  and  J 


FIG.  126. — Showing  the  method  of  washing  oranges  to  remove  the  sooty 
mould  fungus.  (Bulletin  No.  123,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.) 

pound  at  noon  to  keep  the  strength  constant.  The  fruit 
.is  washed  in  this  manner  for  disinfection  against  the  brown 
rot.  The  lemons  after  being  properly  graded  are  placed 
loosely  in  packing  boxes  and  stacked  up  on  the  storage  floor. 
Lemons  are  often  stored  in  this  manner  for  six  or  seven 
months. 

Washing.  —  In  most  of  the  citrus-growing  regions  the 
fruit  must  be  washed  before  it  is  shipped.  If  the  fruit  is 


PACKING  307 

grown  on  a  healthy  tree,  free  from  diseases  or  scale  insects, 
washing  is  not  always  necessary.  The  appearance  of  the 
fruit  cannot  be  improved  by  washing  unless  it  is  grown 
where  it  is  dry  and  windy  and  the  fruit  is  covered  with  dust. 
If  the  fruit  is  affected  with  sooty  mould  which  causes  black 
spots  it  must  be  washed. 

The  fruit  is  either  washed  by  hand  or  by  machine.  Various 
machines  have  been  invented  for  this  work.  A  machine 
which  gives  good  satisfaction  is  made  with  a  series  of  brushes. 
The  brushes  are  slightly  larger  than  scrubbing  brushes  and 
are  arranged  on  a  chain  belt.  The  fruit  is  placed  on  a  chute 
and  rolls  into  a  vessel  containing  water.  It  is  then  made 
to  circulate  in  this  vessel  between  the  brushes,  and  in  this 
way  is  cleaned.  There  are  several  other  washing  machines, 
but  all  are  constructed  on  the  same  general  principles. 

Grading. — The  citrus  fruit  cannot  be  packed  as  it  comes 
from  the  orchard.  It  must  first  be  graded.  All  fruits  of 
one  size  should  be  sorted  out  and  placed  in  a  given  bin. 
Most  of  the  grading  is  done  by  machinery.  Scattered 
along  the  belt  which  carries  the  fruit  when  it  is  graded  are 
several  men  whose  duty  it  is  to  take  out  all  of  the  imperfect 
or  defective  fruits.  The  remainder  are  carried  along  the 
belt  until  they  reach  the  opening  of  the  proper  size,  where 
they  fall  through  and  are  caught  in  a  bin.  This  method 
of  grading  saves  time  and  labor.  The  fruit  of  different  sizes 
is  collected  in  a  separate  bin  and  can  then  be  packed  in  a 
uniform  manner. 

The  lemons  are  usually  picked  with  a  ring,  which  makes 
them  approximately  one  size,  and  very  little  if  any  grading  is 
necessary.  The  orange  requires  more  grading  perhaps  than 
any  other  citrus  fruit. 

Packing. — The  citrus  fruits  are  packed  either  by  hand  or 
by  machinery.  By  far  the  greater  percentage  is  packed  by 
hand.  Each  fruit  is  placed  in  a  given  position  in  the  box, 
and  uniform  packing  has  been  developed  to  a  high  degree. 

The  fruit  is  wrapped  in  paper.  Sometimes  a  monogram 
or  some  other  pleasing  design  is  printed  on  the  wrapping 
paper. 


308  CITRUS  FRUITS 

The  fruit  is  then  packed  in  boxes  and  the  number  of 
fruit  in  each  box  is  determined  by  the  size  of  each  specimen. 
The  number  is  always  the  same  for  a  given  size. 

The  oranges  which  are  suitable  for  packing  vary  in  size 
from  2|  to  3|  inches.  The  orange  crate  measures  approxi- 
mately 12  x  12  x  28  inches.  This  crate  holds  360  specimens 
of  the  smallest  size  and  only  80  of  the  largest  size. 


FIG.  127. — The  usual  package  for  citrus  fruit. 

The  grape  fruit  is  packed  similar  to  that  of  the  orange. 
The  picking  season  for  this  fruit  ranges  from  December 
until  the  following  August.  The  fruit  is  ordinarily  stored 
in  boxes  for  several  days,  until  the  skin  becomes  soft.  After 
the  skin  has  reached  the  proper  stage  the  fruit  is  wrapped 
in  paper  and  packed  in  boxes  the  same  as  oranges. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  CITRUS  FRUITS. 

The  citrus  trees  are  susceptible  to  the  attack  of  a  number 
of  diseases.  The  fungus  diseases  as  well  as  the  physiological 
troubles  cause  great  loss  to  the  citrus  grower.  In  regions 
where  the  climate  is  moist  the  damage  from  fungus  disease 
is  greater  than  in  regions  where  the  climate  is  dry.  The 
reverse  is  true  with  regard  to  the  physiological  troubles. 

The  disease  injury  to  the  citrus  tree  is  found  on  the  root, 
the  stem  and  the  fruit,  and  in  this  respect  resembles  the 
injuries  found  on  many  of  our  temperate  fruits. 

Gum  Diseases. — The  citrus  fruits  often  secrete  gum  from 
many  parts  of  the  tree,  due  to  a  number  of  causes.  It  seems 
to  be  the  direct  result  of  certain  forms  of  diseases,  and  gener- 
ally such  troubles  are  classed  as  gum  diseases. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  CITRUS  FRUIT  309 

The  leaf  gumming  is  very  common,  especially  on  the 
orange.  It  is  more  prevalent  when  the  weather  is  very 
warm.  The  gum  appears  as  little  drops,  usually  on  the 
undersides  of  the  leaves.  It  is  reddish  brown  in  color.  This 
trouble  is  not  very  serious  and  should  cause  no  uneasiness. 

The  brown  rot  gumming  is  caused  by  the  brown-rot  fungus. 
It  is  most  common  on  lemon  trees.  The  greatest  exudation 
of  the  gum  usually  occurs  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree  close 
to  the  bud  union.  This  disease  can  be  largely  prevented 
by  avoiding  soil  conditions  which  are  the  most  favorable 
for  the  growth  of  the  fungus.  Do  not  allow  water  to  stand 
around  the  tree  or  to  come  in  contact  with  the  trunk. 

Twig  gumming  is  sometimes  found  on  nursery  stock.  It 
is  thought  to  be  caused  when  the  trees  are  copiously  watered 
after  they  have  dried  out  considerably.  The  gum  is  found 
on  the  twigs  and  causes  the  bark  to  split.  The  leaves  usually 
drop  and  the  twigs  die. 

Rots. — Besides  the  gum  diseases  there  are  several  rots 
which  are  injurious.  The  foot  rot  and  the  toadstool  rot  are 
the  most  important.  In  Florida  the  foot  rot  is  well  dis- 
tributed, but  it  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  citrus  belt  of 
California.  The  root  rot  is  the  result  of  a  fungus  which 
causes  the  roots  to  rot.  The  affected  roots  soon  become 
soft  and  slimy  and  the  disease  gradually  spreads  downward. 
The  sour  orange  is  the  least  susceptible  to  the  attack  of  the 
fungus,  and  the  disease  is  largely  controlled  by  grafting  on 
the  sour  orange  stock. 

Toadstool  Rot. — The  toadstool  rot  is  the  result  of  a  fungus 
growth.  This  fungus  is  native  to  the  root  of  the  oaks,  but 
it  has  been  able  to  flourish  on  the  citrus  trees,  and  it  is  caus- 
ing much  damage.  The  disease  usually  kills  the  tree  in 
three  or  four  years,  the  affected  tree  dying  gradually. 
During  a  long,  rainy  season  this  fungus  produces  several 
clusters  of  brownish  colored  toadstools  from  the  roots. 
It  is  from  these  toadstools  produced  as  the  fruiting  bodies 
that  the  fungus  take  the  name.  At  present  there  is  no  satis- 
factory remedy  for  this  disease. 

Brown  Rot. — The  brown  rot  of  the  fruit  causes  great  losses 
annually.  The  spores  of  this  disease  enter  the  fruit  through 


310  CITRUS  FRUITS 

the  breathing  pores,  where  they  germinate  and  grow  in  the 
fruit.  In  a  short  time  the  fruit  begins  to  decay  and  it  soon 
develops  the  characteristic  brown  color.  All  of  the  citrus 
fruits  are  affected  with  this  rot,  but  the  lemons  suffer  the 
least  from  its  attacks.  The  loss  from  this  disease  is  the 
greatest  during  wet  weather.  The  disease  continues  to 
spread  rapidly  in  the  packing  house  and  often  destroys  whole 
boxes  of  fruit  before  it  is  detected. 

The  brown  rot  can  easily  be  controlled  if  the  fruit  is  washed 
in  water  which  contains  copper  sulphate  at  the  rate  of  1| 
pounds  to  1000  gallons  of  water. 

Stem-end  Rot. — The  stem-end  rot  affects  the  stem  of  the 
fruit  and  causes  it  to  drop.  The  dropping  begins  with  the 
green  fruits  and  continues  through  the  entire  season.  The 
stem-end  rot  often  causes  the  fruit  to  decay  after  it  has 
reached  the  market.  This  disease  is  difficult  to  control, 
but  the  most  successful  method  of  control  is  to  keep  the  tree 
carefully  pruned  and  to  remove  and  destroy  all  mummied 
fruit  and  dead  twigs. 

Mould. — The  blue  and  the  green  mould  of  the  fruit  causes 
great  losses  in  the  citrus  industry.  These  moulds  are  only 
slightly  parasitic  on  perfect  fruits,  and  the  decay  is  confined 
principally  to  those  fruits  which  have  been  injured  in  handling. 
The  moulds  produce  a  soft  rot  and  the  spores  appear  as  blue 
or  green  powder  on  the  surface  of  the  affected  fruit.  The 
loss  from  this  disease  can  be  largely  prevented  by  the  careful 
handling  of  the  fruit. 

Several  other  less  important  diseases  are  found  on  the 
citrus  fruit,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  some  more  extensive 
treatise  of  that  subject  should  he  desire  more  information 
concerning  citrus  diseases. 

INSECTS  OF  THE  CITRUS  FRUITS. 

The  insects  which  attack  the  citrus  fruits  are  small  in 
number,  but  they  are  very  resistant  to  any  control  measures. 
They  cause  great  financial  loss  annually.  The  scale  insects 
are  the  most  widely  distributed  and  probably  cause  the 
greatest  damage. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  CITRUS  FRUITS 


311 


The  amount  of  the  insect  damage  is  largely  controlled  by 
the  climate.  In  one  region  a  certain  insect  pest  will  pre- 
dominate and  do  great  damage  while  in  another  region  a 
different  insect  will  do  the  greatest  damage.  Each  citrus 
region  usually  has  some  well-defined  insect  which  may  not 
be  serious  in  any  other  region. 


FIG.  128. — An  orange  tree  partly  .killed  by  the  red  scale.  (After  Quayle, 
California  Agriculture  Experiment  Station.) 


The  control  and  eradication  of  all  citrus  insects  is  based 
principally  upon  sanitation.  All  weeds  should  be  destroyed. 
The  fence  rows  should  be  clean  and  rubbish  which  harbors 
insects  should  be  removed.  Where  perfect  sanitation  exists 


312 


CITRUS  FRUITS 


and  a  systematic  and*  a  logical  program  of  fumigation  is 
practised  no  great  amount  of  damage  is  caused  by  the  insect 
pests. 

Scale  Insects. — The  scale  insects  which  are  troublesome,  in 
almost  every  case,  are  foreign  insects  which  have  been  intro- 
duced into  this  country  through  shipments  of  nursery  stock 
and  by  other  ways.  Some  of  the  scale  insects  not  only 
damage  the  plants  by  sucking  out  the  juices,  but  they  secrete 
a  sweet  substance  which  gives  a  good  medium  for  the  grapth 
of  certain  moulds. 


FIG.  129. — Citrus  trees  covered  with  tents  preparatory  to  fumigating 
them,  taken  at  night  when  the  operation  is  carried  on.  (After  Quayle, 
California  Agriculture  Experiment  Station.) 

The  most  practical  means  of  control  of  the  scale  insects 
is  by  fumigating  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  Each  insect 
varies  in  its  power  to  withstand  the  gas  and  separate  dosage 
tables  have  been  worked  out  for  each  important  scale  insect. 
The  success  of  this  gas  in  controlling  the  scale  insect  is  in 
its  ease  of  generation  and  its  exceedingly  poisonous  nature. 

The  fumigation  is  done  by  the  use  of  a  tent  placed  over  the 
tree.  The  tents  are  made  of  the  best  duck  and  vary  in  size 
from  20  to  36  feet  for  different  sized  trees. 

The  cost  of  fumigating  is  about  thirty  cents  for  the  aver- 
age-sized tree. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  CITRUS  FRUITS  313 

Thrip.— Besides  the  scale  insects  several  others  are  inju- 
rious. The  orange  thrip  is  often  troublesome  and  is  found 
principally  in  the  flowers  of  the  citrus  fruit.  The  presence 
of  the  thrip  is  usually  first  detected  by  the  distorted  and 
irregular  growth  of  young  leaves. 

The  thrip  injures  the  fruit  by  producing  irregular  scars 
around  the  stem  and  at  other  places  over  the  surface.  The 
damage  done  to  the  fruit  does  not  injure  the  edible  qualities, 
but  it  reduces  the  sale  and  places  it  in  an  inferior  grade. 

The  most  effective  remedy  for  the  thrip  recommended 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  2J  quarts 
of  commercial  lime  sulphur  at  22°  Baume  plus  3J  fluid- 
ounces  of  a  40  per  cent.  Black  Leaf  extract  to  30  gallons  of 
water.  This  material  should  be  sprayed  on  the  trees  with  a 
force  of  175  or  200  pounds  pressure. 

Red  Spider. — There  are  two  species  of  red  spider  injurious 
to  the  citrus  fruit.  They  are  found  throughout  the  citrus 
regions  both  in  Florida  and  in  California. 

The  red  spider  is  a  small  red  insect  which  often  becomes 
so  abundant  on  a  leaf  as  to  give  a  reddish  color  to  it.  The 
best  remedy  for  the  red  spider  is  sulphur.  It  is  used  in 
either  the  dry  form  or  in  the  form  of  lime  sulphur  solution. 
When  it  is  used  dry  the  sulphur  is  dusted  on  the  plant, 
usually  when  the  foliage  is  a  little  damp.  When  lime  sulphur 
is  used  the  commercial  product  is  diluted  1  gallon  to  35 
gallons  of  water.  The  lime  sulphur  is  becoming  more  popular 
and  its  cost  is  much  less  than  fumigation. 

Whiteflies. — The  whiteflies  are  serious  pests  to  the  citrus 
industry  especially  in  Florida.  In  fact  they  are  perhaps 
among  the  most  destructive  insect  pests  in  that  region. 
There  are  eight  different  species  which  may  be  found  on 
citrus  fruit  in  Florida.  The  common  citrus  whitefly,  the 
woolly  whitefly  and  the  cloudy-winged  whitefly  are  the 
three  most  important  species,  while  the  mulberry  whitefly, 
guava  whitefly,  sweet  potato  whitefly,  bay  whitefly  and  the 
flocculent  whitefly  are  found  in  this  region  but  are  of  minor 
importance. 

The  whiteflies  are  small  insects,  usually  white  in  color, 
although  some  species  have  blotches  on  their  wings  which 


314  CITRUS  FRUITS 

give  them  a  cloudy  appearance,  while  a  few  others  have 
markings  on  their  wings  which  produce  a  slight  variation 
and  give  a  different  appearance. 

The  life  histories  of  all  of  the  whiteflies  are  very  similar. 
These  insects  have  complete  metamorphoses,  that  is,  they 
pass  through  four  stages  in  their  development. 

The  egg  is  small  and  nearly  oval  in  outline.  It  is  barely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  of  the  plant  and  hatch  in  a  few  days  into  pale 
yellow  larvae.  The  larvae  crawl  about  for  a  few  hours,  usually 
on  the  underside  of  the  leaves,  and  soon  insert  their  beaks 
into  the  tissue,  where  they  suck  out  the  sap.  They  never 
move  again,  but  continue  to  feed  and  grow  rapidly,  going 
through  several  molts  until  they  reach  the  fourth  larval 
stage,  which  differs  from  the  larva  of  the  other  stages  in 
being  thicker,  taking  less  food,  and  the  organs  of  the  adult 
fly  begin  to  form.  The  insect  passes  through  this  last  stage 
and  emerges  as  an  adult  fly.  The  life  as  an  adult  is  very 
short,  in  most  cases  only  a  few  days.  The  females  lay  about 
a  hundred  eggs  and  then  die. 

The  whitefly  can  be  held  in  check  by  spraying.  Spraying 
with  a  combination  of  soap  and  oils  will  serve  to  control 
these  insects.  The  original  spray  recommended  by  the 
Florida  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  is  as  follows : 

Whale  oil  soap 8  pounds 

Paraffin  oil 2  gallons 

Water 1  gallon 

More  recent  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  by 
substituting  other  soaps  which  are  cheaper,  just  as  good 
results  are  obtained.  The  modified  formula  then  is  to  sub- 
stitute two  pounds  of  ordinary  soap  for  the  whale  oil  soap 
and  then  heat  the  material  to  the  boiling-point  and  emulsify 
it  by  agitating  it  vigorously.  This  stock  solution  should 
be  diluted  before  it  is  used. 

The  number  of  sprayings  that  are  necessary  to  control  the 
whiteflies  depends  upon  the  weather  and  the  location.  The 
first  spray  should  be  given  late  in  April  or  early  in  May. 
The  best  time  seems  to  be  when  the  bulk  of  the  spring  brood 


,    INSECTS  OF  THE  CITRUS  FRUITS  315 

of  adults  have  disappeared.  Several  other  sprayings  are 
usually  necessary  and  are  determined  by  the  location.  The 
exact  time  to  spray  should  be  determined  by  the  flies  and 
should  be  about  two  weeks  after  a  great  number  of  the 
adults  have  disappeared.  Usually  spraying  must  be  done  in 
late  August  and  early  September.  This  spray  is  considered 
the  most  important  of  the  year. 

The  whiteflies  are  also  attacked  by  certain  fungi.  These 
fungi  have  proved  very  effective  in  holding  the  insects  in 
check.  When  the  summer  rains  begin,  which  is  usually  in 
June  or  July,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  introduce  these 
fungi  in  the  citrus  grove  which  will  operate  as  natural  enemies 
for  the  control  of  the  whitefly. 

Control  of  Insects. — The  control  measures  for  the  citrus 
insects  are  different  from  the  control  measures  for  most 
other  insects.  This  is  made  necessary  because  the  trees 
have  their  leaves  the  entire  season,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
scale  insects,  the  insecticide  effective  in  killing  the  scale 
would  also  destroy  the  foliage.  In  Florida  where  the  white- 
flies  are  very  destructive  spraying  with  miscible  oils  has 
proved  very  effective  in  controlling  these  insects.  However, 
owing  to  the  different  classes  of  insects  as  well  as  the  fact 
that  the  trees  are  in  foliage  at  the  time  control  measures 
have  to  be  practised,  has  led  to  another  method  which  is 
largely  practised  in  certain  citrus  regions,  namely  that  of 
fumigation. 

About  1886  California  first  seriously  considered  fumiga- 
tion as  a  means  of  destroying  injurious  insects.  As  time 
passed  the  methods  of  fumigation  were  greatly  improved 
but  the  fundamental  principles  remain  the  same. 

Fumigation  is  practised  by  covering  the  tree  with  a  tent 
made  of  heavy  duck.  Under  the  tent  the  fumigating  material 
is  placed.  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  the  material  commonly 
used,  and  is  made  by  depositing  sodium  or  potassium  cyanide 
in  an  earthen  jar  and  covering  it  with  sulphuric  acid.  The 
jars  should  be  at  least  2  gallons  in  capacity  to  prevent  the 
acid  from  foaming  up  and  spilling  out.  The  amount  of 
material  which  is  used  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  tree  and 
the  insect  which  is  doing  the  damage.  There  are  dosage 


316  CITRUS  FRUITS 

tables  worked  out  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  various  state  experiment  stations,  and 
these  should  be  consulted  for  a  more  detailed  study  of 
fumigation. 

The  fumigation  gives  better  results  and  produces  less 
injury  to  the  foliage  if  it  is  done  at  night  instead  of  in  the 
daytime. 

The  season  of  the  year  at  which  fumigating  is  done  depends 
upon. the  life  history  of  the  insects  and  the  condition  of  the 
tree.  The  fumigation  should  be  carried  on  when  the  insects 
are  in  the  most  tender  stage  and  can  be  easily  killed,  and 
the  tune  will  vary  slightly  for  each  insect.  However,  from 
August  to  January  seems  to  be  the  time  which  gives  the 
most  satisfactory  results. 

The  dosages  as  well  as  the  length  of  time  vary  with  the 
different  scale  insects.  This  phase  can  be  learned  in  some 
more  complete  treatise  on  the  subject. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  fruits  included  in  the  citrus  class. 

2.  Why  is  the  citrus  industry  confined  to  certain  special  districts? 

3.  How  does  the  grape  fruit  differ  from  the  orange? 

4.  Discuss  the  propagation  of  the  citrus  fruit.     What  form  of  budding  is 
used? 

5.  What  is  the  best  type  of  soil  for  the  citrus  fruit?     How  does  the  sub- 
soil regulate  the  value  of  the  top  soil? 

6.  Why  is  good  cultivation  essential? 

7.  How  should  a  citrus  orchard  be  planted? 

8.  Discuss  the  curing  of  citrus  fruits.     How  does  the  curing  of  the  orange 
differ  from  that  of  the  lemon? 

9.  What  method  of  picking  is  used  for  the  lemon?     Why? 

10.  How  does  the  picking  of  the  orange  differ  from  that  of  the  lemon? 

11.  What  is  the  value  of  washing  citrus  fruits?     In  what  solution  is  the 
washing  done? 

12.  Discuss  the  grading  of  citrus  fruits. 

13.  Discuss  the  packing  of  the  lemon,  grape  fruit  and  orange. 

14.  Discuss  the  principal  diseases  and  give  the  methods  of  control. 

15.  What  class  of  insects  is  the  most  injurious  to  the  citrus  fruit?     Why? 

16.  Discuss  the  fumigation  of  a  citrus  orchard. 

17.  Why  is  fumigation  used  instead  of  spraying? 

18.  When  is  the  best  time  to  fumigate?     Why? 

19.  What  is  the  most  destructive  citrus  insect  in  Florida? 

20.  Give  the  life  history  of  the  whitefly. 

21.  What  method  of  control  has  proved  the  most  effective  with  the 
whiteflies. 

22.  Discuss  the  various  ways  of  controlling  the  different  diseases  on  the 
citrus  fruit. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS. 

THE  beautifying  of  the  home  grounds  is  not  appreciated 
as  much  in  America  as  it  rightfully  deserves.  For  that 
reason  it  is  hoped  that  a  few  pages  relative  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  home  surroundings  will  stimulate  sufficient 
interest  in  this  subject  so  that  the  average  individual  will 
attempt  the  improvement  of  his  property  by  the  judicious 
planning,  and  the  planting  of  the  home  grounds.  Why  is  it 
that  so  many  beautiful  residences  are  built  and  so  little 
thought  given  to  the  grounds  encircling  them?  Is  it  not  true 
that  the  value  of  a  property  is  largely  determined  by  its 
location  and  its  environment?  Did  you  ever  stop  to  think 
that  by  the  expenditure  of  a  few  dollars  for  the  purchase  of 
shrubs  and  ornamental  plants  you  will  materially  increase  the 
value  of  your  property?  It  is  important,  however,  that  the 
shrubs  are  placed  in  an  artistic  way,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
Figs.  134  to  144  will  aid  in  suggesting  the  correct  loca- 
tions and  the  proper  massing  of  the  ornamentals  in  order 
to  produce  the  best  effects.  The  list  of  shrubs  suggested 
include  only  a  few  of  the  better  and  most  important  orna- 
mentals. These  are  adapted  for  planting  about  the  home, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  this  list  will  be  used  only  as  a  guide.  A 
reliable  local  nurseryman  should  also  be  consulted,  because 
oftentimes  different  strains  or  varieties  are  much  better 
adapted  to  certain  local  regions,  and  in  such  cases  these 
varieties  should  be  chosen.  The  list  given  is  far  from  being 
complete  and  other  shrubs  which  are  known  to  be  valuable 
can  be  added. 

Locating  the  House. — In  locating  a  residence,  whether  it  is 
on  a  small  city  lot  or  on  a  ten-acre  tract,  aim  to  set  the  house 
comparatively  close  to  one  side  of  the  boundary  and  at  the 


318  BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 

proper  distance  from  the  street  or  road.  The  distance  the 
house  can  be  located  from  the  street  is  determined  by  the 
size  of  the  lot,  the  city  regulations  and  the  local  environment, 
all  of  which  need  consideration.  Where  the  conditions 
make  it  possible  never  place  the  house  closer  than  30  feet 
from  the  front  boundary.  The  location  of  the  residence  on 
the  lot  is  not  so  rigidly  assigned  to  a  given  place  by  city 
ordinances,  and  the  individual  can  usually  place  it  in  the 
center  or  to  one  side  without  any  restriction.  To  produce  the 
most  pleasing  effects  the  owner  should  set  the  house  close  to 
one  boundary  line  and  a  proportional  distance  back  from 
the  street. 

If  the  grounds  are  large  the  location  of  the  buildings 
usually  becomes  more  complicated  because  outbuildings  are 
necessary.  The  buildings  must  be  arranged  so  that  the 
grouping  will  form  a  unit  and  placed  so  they  will  not  cut  up 
the  grounds  into  separate  pieces.  If  the  house  and  other 
buildings  are  located  near  one  side  of  the  property  a  large  open 
lawn  will  result  on  the  opposite  side  and  in  the  rear.  This 
arrangement  of  the  building  will  give  open  vistas  and  pleas- 
ing views  from  the  main  rooms.  It  will  also  give  the  impres- 
sion of  increasing  the  extent  of  the  lawn.  On  city  or  sub- 
urban lots  the  house  should  also  be  located  nearer  to  one 
side  of  the  lot  and  not  set  directly  in  the  center.  Such  an 
arrangement  does  not  permit  the  ground  to  be  cut  in  half.  It 
also  gives  a  larger  lawn,  and  the  planting  of  the  shrubs  is 
much  more  effective  if  they  are  massed  along  the  border, 
which  leaves  an  open  lawn  between  the  house  and  one 
boundary.  The  house  should  be  located  so  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  grounds  can  be  enjoyed  from  the  principal  rooms. 

Drainage. — The  drainage  of  the  soil  is  very  important  in 
the  consideration  of  any  property,  and  it  either  increases  or 
decreases  its  value.  The  injurious  effects  of  drainage  are 
not  only  seen  on  the  growing  of  plants,  but  poor  drainage 
is  unhealthy  and  is  entirely  unsuited  to  the  development  of 
both  the  lawn  and  the  trees.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
drain  the  land,  whenever  the  location  demands  it,  not  only 
from  the  esthetic  point  of  view  but  from  the  health  con- 
siderations. There  are  many  ways  in  which  a  piece  of  land 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WALKS  AND  DRIVES          319 

can  be  drained,  but  space  will  not  permit  of  a  discussion  of 
the  various  methods.  In  case  any  complicated  conditions 
arise  that  cannot  judiciously  be  handled  by  the  owner  an 
engineer  or  a  drainage  expert  should  be  consulted.  The  best 
plan,  however,  is  not  to  select  a  poorly  drained  piece  of  land 
on  which  to  build  a  residence.  The  drainage  will  be  largely 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  and  when  you  are 
selecting  the  building  site  due  consideration  should  be  given 
to  the  type  of  subsoil  which  underlies  the  top  soil.  If  the 
subsoil  is  comparatively  close  to  the  surface  and  composed  of 
heavy  impervious  material  in  the  nature  of  a  hard  pan  the 
drainage  will  be  poor  and  in  all  probability  the  only  relief 
will  be  to  tile  drain.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  subsoil  is  com- 
paratively deep  or  is  composed  of  loose  material  the  drainage 
will  be  more  perfect  and  will  usually  form  an  ideal  site,  so 
far  as  this  phase  is  concerned. 


FIG.  130. — One  method  of  laying  out  a  curve. 

Arrangement  of  Walks  and  Drives. — On  small  city  lots  the 
walks  and  drives  should  be  the  shortest  distance  between  the 
two  points,  namely,  the  outside  walk  and  the  door-step. 
Likewise  it  would  be  pure  folly  to  construct  an  automobile 
drive  in  any  other  manner  than  to  have  it  go  directly  from  the 
street  to  the  garage  in  a  straight  line.  However,  the  method 
of  constructing  walks  and  drives  differs  when  we  consider 
the  suburban  home  or  the  country  place,  and  in  these  cases 
the  walks  and  the  roads  must  be  viewed  from  a  different 
aspect. 


320 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 


In  a  suburban  home  or  a  country  estate  it  is  always  desir- 
able to  locate  the  outbuildings  at  a  place  where  they  are  not 
prominent  and  to  connect  them  to  the  main  highway  with  a 
road  in  which  a  graceful  curve  has  been  introduced.  Easy 
flowing  curves  for  the  roads  are  not  only  permissible  in  such 
cases  but  are  only  recommended  on  such  grounds  that  are 
amply  large  enough  to  accommodate  this  treatment.  Curved 


FIG.  131. — A  good  method  for  measuring  the  opposite  side  of  a  curved  road. 

walks  and  drives  should  be  avoided  on  small  city  lots.  Curves, 
no  matter  where  they  are  introduced,  should  be  easy  and 
flowing  wherever  they  are  used.  Abrupt  angles  and  corners 
should  be  avoided.  Whenever  a  road  or  a  walk  is  made  to 
curve  some  excuse  must  be  apparent  for  the  curve.  The 
excuse  for  a  curve  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  tree  or  a  group 
of  shrubs  massed  in  the  proper  places. 


FIG.  132. — The  correct  curve  for  a  road  or  a  walk. 

Treatment  of  Curved  Walks  or  Drives. — As  previously  stated, 
when  a  walk  or  a  drive  is  made  to  curve  some  excuse  must 
be  given  for  the  existence  of  the  curve,  which  is  best  done  by 
the  judicious  grouping  of  shrubs  or  low  evergreen  trees. 


GROUPING  AND  MASSING  OF  SHRUBS 


321 


When  it  is  desired  to  prevent  one  curve  from  being  visible 
from  another,  groups  composed  largely  of  evergreens  should 
be  selected  and  planted  near  the  hollows  of  the  curves. 
Massed  plantings  should  never  be  placed  at  the  extreme 
center  of  the  curve  but  located  on  either  side  of  it.  To  secure 
the  best  effects  from  this  treatment  the  character  and  the 
outline  of  the  grouping  should  be  extremely  different. 


FIG.  133. — Incorrect  curve  for  a  road  or  a  walk. 


Grouping  and  Massing  of  Shrubs. — Rarely  ever  should  a 
shrub  be  planted  singly.  Single  planting  in  some  instances 
is  used,  but  the  grouping  of  shrubs  should  be  the  common 
practice.  Some  skill  and  art  is  necessary  in  the  judicious 
massing  of  shrubs,  and  some  facts  relative  to  the  growth  of 
the  plants  are  necessary.  The  principal  practice  of  the  older 
landscape  gardeners  was  to  group  the  shrubs  in  such  a  way 
that  the  taller  growing  plants  always  formed  the  extreme 
border  and  the  smaller  growing  shrubs  were  placed  in  the 
front,  so  that  a  more  or  less  uniform  growth  of  foliage  was  the 
result.  Rarely  ever  is  this  procedure  excusable.  Do  we  ever 
find  such  an  arrangement  of  shrubs  in  nature?  Consequently 
when  it  is  desirable  to  have  our  places  look  natural,  natural 
ways  of  planting  should  be  used.  Strive  to  group  the  plant- 
21 


322 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 


ing  so  that  irregular  lines  are  produced.     Interplant  shrubs 
of  varying  heights  and  do  not  place  all  tall-growing  or  all 


FIG.  134. — The  proper  way  to  group  shrubs  in  the  corner  of  a  lot. 


FIG.  135. — The  proper  way  to  group  shrubs  in  an  angle. 

low-growing  shrubs  together,  so  that  they  produce  distinct 
uniform  lines  of  foliage.    The  tall-  and  the  low-growing 


GROUPING  AND  MASSING  OF  SHRUBS 


323 


shrubs  should  be  massed  together.  I  do  not  mean  that  one 
plant  should  be  alternated  with  another,  but  groups  of  one 
kind  should  be  massed  with  groups  of  another  kind. 


FIG.  130. — The  proper  way  to  mass  shrubs  in  isolated  groups. 

Single  specimen  plants  have  a  place  on  large  lawns,  but 
when  they  are  used  the  individual  plant  should  appear  to  be 
attached  to  a  group  of  shrubs  and  placed  at  some  little 


FIG.  137. — An  unattractive  residence  due  to  the  lack  of  shrubs. 

distance  from  the  clump.  The  distance  the  single  shrubs  are 
located  from  the  general  mass  should  be  gauged  so  that  the 
specimen  does  not  appear  to  be  entirely  distinct  but  to  have 


324 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 


some  connection  with  the  larger  group.  The  more  prominent 
the  projection  of  a  mass  of  shrubbery  the  better  it  will  be 
fitted  for  receiving  a  single  specimen  plant  as  an  extension. 


FIG.  138. — A  well-balanced  planting. 

There  are  several  well-defined  places  where   shrubs  and 
ornamental  plants  should  be  located  to  produce  the  best 


FIG.  139. — An  attractive  foundation  made  by  planting  annual  plants. 

effect:  (1)  grouping  or  massing  along  the  borders,  (2)  group- 
ing near  the  centers  of  curves  in  walks  and  roads,  (3)  group- 


THE  LAWN 


325 


ing  in  the  angle  of  two  walks  or  roads,  (4)  planting  along  the 
foundations. 

The  Lawn. — This  chapter  would  not  be  considered  complete 
without  some  mention  of  the  lawn.  A  number  of  books  have 
been  written  on  this  subject,  telling  how  to  make  a  lawn 
and  how  to  maintain  it  in  its  best  form,  and  for  that  reason 
only  mere  mention  will  be  made  here.  However,  a  few 
statements  are  necessary.  In  the  first  place  the  soil  should 
be  well  drained,  and  when  it  is  possible  a  loam  soil  is  to  be 
preferred,  but  this  is  not  essential.  The  land  should  be 
thoroughly  manured,  plowed  and  cultivated  previous  to 


FIG.  140. — A  well-planted  street.     Note  the  uniformity  due  to  community 

planting. 

seeding.  All  stones,  pieces  of  wood,  roots  and  stumps  must 
be  removed  and  a  coating  of  well-rotted  manure  placed  on 
top  of  the  soil  when  it  is  possible. 

The  next  important  thing  to  do  is  to  select  a  good  lawn 
grass.  Various  mixtures  are  on  the  market,  but  I  believe 
better  results  can  be  obtained  by  making  your  own  mixture 
and  confining  it  to  two  or  three  grasses.  In  many  localities 
perhaps  one  is  sufficient.  The  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  the 
red  top  will  make  an  ideal  lawn  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  if  they  are  properly  handled.  ^Occasionally  some  other 
grasses  must  be  used  in  certain  regions.  Seed  heavily  and 


326  BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 

from  4  to  6  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  or  about  1  bushel  to 
7000  square  feet,  is  not  too  much.  Few  people  realize  the 
importance  of  a  thick  stand  in  all  parts  of  the  lawn,  and  to 
have  success  you  must  show  the  seed  thickly  in  order  to  keep 
out  weeds  and  other  wild  grasses.  The  seed  should  be  sown 
in  two  directions  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other  to  ensure 
a  uniform  stand  of  grass. 

A  lawn  to  be  effective  and  beautiful  should  be  kept  mowed 
and  clean  shaven  all  of  the  time.  A  regular  time  must  be 
chosen  to  cut  the  grass,  and  the  length  of  the  time  between 
each  cutting  must  be  largely  determined  by  the  season  of  the 
year  and  the  amount  of  rainfall.  In  the  spring  when  the 
grass  is  growing  fast  it  should  be  cut  every  week  or  ten  days 
and  the  clippings  allowed  to  remain  on  the  lawn.  The 
clippings  fall  between  the  blades  of  grass  and  form  a  mulch 
which  aids  in  preventing  evaporation  as  well  as  enriching  the 
soil.  As  the  season  advances  and  the  rainfall  becomes  less, 
the  time  between  successive  cuttings  should  be  lengthened. 

Fig.  141  represents  a  tentative  arrangement  for  the  group- 
ing of  a  few  ornamental  plants  on  a  city  lot  emphasizing 'the 
screen  and  foundation  planting.  The  selection  of  varieties 
must  necessarily  vary  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country, 
as  well  as  in  the  different  sections  of  the  same  country. 
Only  plants  suitable  for  foundation  and  for  border  planting 
should  be  selected.  One  or  more  varieties  may  be  massed  in 
groups,  which  should  be  determined  by  the  individual  doing 
the  planting.  In  general  the  fewer  the  number  of  varieties 
the  more  satisfactory  the  result  will  be. 

This  plan  presupposes  a  garden  in  the  rear,  which  is 
screened  from  view  by  a  mass  of  shrubs  at  the  boundary 
line.  In  selecting  the  plants  for  the  grouping,  some  of  the 
taller  and  more  vigorous  growers  will  be  the  most  satisfactory 
for  screening  the  undesirable  portions. 

In  selecting  suitable  shrubs  consult  the  list  of  shrubs 
adapted  to  your  location.  More  detailed  and  specific  infor- 
mation regarding  your  local  conditions  can  be  secured  by 
consulting  some  nurseryman  or  landscape  gardener  in  your 
immediate  vicinity. 


THE  LAWN 


327 


Fig.  142  represents  the  grouping  of  ornamentals  on  a 
corner  lot.  This  is  designed  to  screen  the  garden,  as  well  as 
to  give  privacy  to  the  lawn.  Foundation  plantings  are  also 
emphasized.  The  garden  or  drying  ground  is  screened  from 


PARKING 


FIG.  141. — A  suggestive  plan  for  the  grouping  of  ornamentals  on  a  city  lot. 


328 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 


view  by  the  use  of  the  taller  growing  shrubs,  while  shrubs 
varying  in  height  should  be  used  in  the  border.    The  selection 


FIG.  142. — A  suggestive  plan  for  the  grouping  of  ornamentals  on  a  city  lot 
with  two  sides  exposed  to  the  street. 

of  the  shrubs  to  produce  this  effect  can  necessarily  vary,  and 
each  individual  should  select  those  plants  which  are  to  his 
liking.  As  a  rule  better  effects  will  be  produced  if  a  number 


THE  LAWN 


329 


m 


SIDEWALK 


FIG.  143.— A  suggestive  plan  for  the  grouping  of  ornamentals  on  a  corner 
lot  with  two  entrances  and  a  garage. 


330 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 


of  the  same  kind  of  shrubs  are  grouped  together  and  not 
too  many  different  kinds  selected. 


THE  LAWN  331 

Fig.  143  represents  the  planting  of  a  lot  where  two  sides 
are  exposed  and  a  residence  that  has  a  prominent  entrance 
from  two  streets.  This  plan  also  introduces  a  garage  and  a 
drive  leading  to  it.  No  garden  or  drying  ground  is  provided. 
In  this  plan  the  shrubs  are  intended  to  screen  the  borders, 
and  to  effectively  conceal  the  objectionable  features  con- 
nected with  the  garage.  The  open  side  lawn  is  screened  so 
that  privacy  will  result  and  where  croquet  or  tennis  can 
be  indulged  in  for  recreation.  Foundation  planting  is  in 
evidence  and  for  this  some  of  the  smaller  growing  shrubs 
should  be  selected.  The  drive  should  be  of  cement  or  gravel 
and  graded  in  such  a  way  so  as  to  provide  good  drainage. 

Fig.  144  illustrates  a  suggestive  arrangement  for  an 
irregular  piece  of  ground.  This  plan  omits  the  garden  and 
introduces  a  continuous  drive  through  the  grounds.  The 
garage  is  practically  concealed  by  plantings  from  all  sides. 
The  sharp  corners  are  turned  and  rounded  by  the  grouping 
of  shrubs  which  give  the  open  lawn  graceful  curves.  Foun- 
dation planting  is  also  used.  The  selection  of  the  shrubs 
will  necessarily  vary,  due  to  the  location  and  the  individual 
preference  of  the  owner. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  determines  the  value  of  a  piece  of  property? 

2.  Why  does  the  planting  of  shrubs  improve  the  looks  of  a  home? 

3.  Where  is  the  proper  place  to  locate  a  house  on  a  city  lot? 

4.  What  principles  are  involved  in  locating  a  house? 

5.  Why  is  it  important  that  the  ground  should  be  well  drained? 

6.  Discuss  the  arrangement  of  walks  and  drives. 

7.  Why  should  abrupt  angles  be  avoided? 

8.  How  should  curved  walks  and  drives  be  treated? 

9.  How  should  shrubs  be  planted? 

10.  Is  the  single  planting  or  the  massing  of  shrubs  the  most  effective? 
Why? 

11.  When  single  plantings  are  used  where  should  they  be  placed? 

12.  Name  the  four  well-defined  locations  where  shrubs  should  be  planted. 

13.  Discuss  the  lawn. 

14.  How  often  should  it  be  moved? 

15.  What  is  the  value  of  regular  mowing  of  the  lawn? 


332 


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INDEX. 


A 


AERIAL,  layering,  87 
Agitator,  134 

Amount  of  seed  to  plant,  22 
Anthracnose  on  brambles,  218 

on  bush  fruite,  204 
Aphis  on  bush  fruits,  205 

on  cherry,  274 

on  peach,  274 

Apple,  cultivation  and  mulching  of, 
241,  243 

diseases  of,  247 

distance  to  plant,  240 

insects  of,  250 

packing  of,  245 

propagation  of,  237 

pruning  of,  243 

soil  for  planting  of,  238 

systems  of  planting,  240 

varieties  of,  246 
Arrangement  of  city  garden,  29 

of  plants,  20 

of  walks  and  drives,  319 
Arsenate  of  lead  formula,  138 
Asexual  reproduction,  79 
Asparagus,  21,  22 
Automatic  sprayer,  130 


B 


BACTERIA,  kinds  of,  121 

multiplication  of,  121 
Bacterial  action  of  soil  influenced 

by  cultivation,  74 
Bark  graft,  106 
Barrel  Sprayer,  131 
Beans,  21,  22 

Beautifying  the  home  grounds,  317 
Beets,  21,  22 


Bitter  rot  on  apple,  247 
Black  knot  on  cherry,  273 

on  plum,  293 
rot  on  apple,  247 

on  grape,  230,  231 
Blackberry,  21,  22 

cultivation  of,  209 
Bordeaux  mixture,  142,  144 
Brambles,  208 
diseases  of,  217 
harvesting  of,  216 
insects  of,  218 
planting  of,  213 
propagation  of,  211 
soil  and  fertilizer  for,  212 
systems  of  training,  pruning  of, 

215 

varieties  of,  217 
winter  protection  of,  216 
Bridge  graft,  107 
Broker,  the,  169 
Brown  rot  on  apple,  247 
on  cherry,  273 
on  citrus  fruits,  309 
on  peach,  283 
Bucket  spray,  129 
Bud,  cutting  of,  96 
plate,  98,  99 
shield,  96,  97 
Budding  knife,  97 

time  for,  95 
Bulb,  80 
Bush  fruits,  196 

cultivation  of,  199 
.diseases  of,  203 
harvesting  of,  200 
insects  of,  204 
planting  of,  199 
propagation  of,  197 
pruning  of,  200 
soil  for,  198 
varieties  of,  202 

(347) 


348 


INDEX 


CABBAGE,  21,  22 

worm,  112 
Cane  blight,  218 

borer,  218 
Canker  worm,  254 
Carbolic  acid  emulsion,  141 
Care  of  produce,  160 
Carrots,  21,  22 
Cauliflower,  21,  22 

in  crates,  164 
Cause  for  pruning,  150 
Celery,  21,  22 

cabbage,  164 

crate,  162 
Chard,  21,  22 
Cherry,  diseases  of,  273 

harvesting  and  packing  of,  272 

insects  of,  274 

planting  and  cultivation  of,  270 

propagation  of,  267 

pruning  of,  271 

soil  for,  269 

varieties  of,  272 
Cion,  101 
Citrus  fruits,  298 
diseases  of,  308 
grading  and  packing  of,  307 
harvesting  and  curing  of,  304 
insects  of,  310 
planting  of,  303 
propagation  of,  300 
soil  and  cultivation  of,  302 
washing  of,  306 
City  garden,  21,  22 
Cleft  graft,  105 
Codling  moth,  250,  251 
Cold  frame,  35,  55,  64 

cross-section  of,  65 
Commission  man,  169 
Companion  planting,  24 
Composting  manure,  62 
Contact  poisons,  139 
Corm,  81 
Corn,  21,  22 
Corrosive  sublimate,  145 
Cucumber,  21,  22 
Cultivation,  67 

of  apple,  241 

of  bush  fruits,  199 

of  cherry,  270 

of  citrus  fruits,  302 

of  grape,  225 


Cultivation,  objects  of,  68 

of  peach,  279 

of  pear,  257 

of  plum,  290 

of  quince,  264 

shallow  or  deep,  69 

of  strawberry,  186 
Cultivators,  76,  77 
Curculio  on  grape,  235 

on  plum,  294,  295 
Currant,  21,  22 

types  of,  196 

worms,  204 
Cuttings,  88,  90 

greenwood,  90 

hardwood,  92,  221 

heel,  222 

soft  wood,  90 
Cylinders,  134 


DENITRIFICATION,  76 
Depth  of  planting,  48 
Dewberry,  209 

Dinner  plate  seed  tester,  45,  46 
Disease  of  applesj  247 

bacterial,  120 

ef  brambles,  217 

of  cherries,  273 

of  citrus  fruit,  308 

control  of,  119 

fungous,  119 

of  grapes,  230 

of  peaches,  282 

of  pears,  259 

of  plums,  292 

of  quinces,  265 

symptoms  of,  117 
Disk  harrow,  73 
Distance  to  plant  perennial  plants 

21 

small  fruits,  21 
vegetables,  21 

Double  hedge  row  system,  186 
Downy  mildew  on  grape,  232 
Drainage,  318 
Drive,  arrangement  of,  319 

treatment  of,  320 


EFFECTS  of  pruning,  151 
Eggplant,  21,  22 


INDEX 


349 


Embryo,  38 

Equilibrium  of  plant,  148 
disturbance  of,  148 


F 


FALL  plowing,  72 

preparation  of  plants,  173 
Farm  garden,  21 
Fertilizers,  23 
Fire  blight  on  apple,  249 

on  pear,  259 
Firming  board,  49 
Flea  beetle,  233 
Fly  speck,  248 
Formalin,  formula  of,  144 
Fumigation,  144 
Fungicides,  143 
Fungous  disease,  119 
Fruit  worm,  205 


GARDEN  plans,  29,  30,  32,  33,  34,  35 

soil,  preparation  of,  23 
Geneva  seed  tester,  46 
Germinating  cup,  46 
Germination,  38 

internal  conditions  affecting,  42 

oxygen  necessary  for,  40 

processes  of,  42 

temperature  necessary  for,  41 

water  necessary  for,  38 
Germinative  energy  of  seed,  44 
Gooseberry,  21,  22 

classes  of,  197 

pruning  of,  200 
Grades,  standardized,  166 
Grafting,  95,  99 

bark,  106 

bridge,  107 

cleft,  105,  106 

purpose  and  value  of,  100 

saddle,  104 

splice,  102 

tongue,  102 

u?e  of,  100 

waxes,  formulas  for,  110,  111 
Grape,  21,  22 

cultivation  of,  225 

diseases  of,  230 

fruit,  299 


Grape,  harvesting  and  packing  of, 
228 

insects  of,  232 

planting  of,  224 

propagation  of,  220 

pruning  of,  225 

soil  for,  223 

training  of,  226 

varieties  of,  229 
Grapeberry  moth,  234 
Greenwood  cutting,  90,  91 
Gum  diseases  of  citrus  fruits,  308 
Gummosis  on  plum,  292 


HAND  atomizer,  129 
Hardwood  cuttings,  92 

storing  and  handling  of,  92 
Harvesting,  159 

of  apples,  244  .  . 

of  brambles,  216 

of  cherry,  272 

of  citrus  fruits,  304 

of  grapes,  228 

of  pears,  258 

of  plum,  291 

of  btrawberry,  188 
Hellebore,  formula  for,  138 
Herbaceous  plants,  winter  care  of, 

174 

Hill  system,  184 
Horse  cultivator,  76 
Horseradish,  21,  22 
Hot-bed,  35,  55 

advantages  of,  55 

cross- section  of,  58 

frame,  57 

location  of,  56 

pit,  56 

depth  of,  57 

plan,  61 

sash,  59 
How  to  remove  large  branches,  152 


IMPLEMENTS  of  cultivation,  76 

Insecticides,  137-141,  143 

Insects,  biting,  boring,  sucking,  113 
control  measures  of,  115 

Internal  conditions  affecting  ger- 
mination, 42 


350 


INDEX 


JOBBER,  the,  170 


KEROSENE  emulsion,  formula  for, 

141 
Kumquat,  299 


LAWN,  325 
Layer,  84 
Layering,  aerial,  87 

mound,  85 

serpentine,  87 

time  for,  88 

tip,  86 

trench,  86,  87 
Laying  out  the  garden,  17 
Leaf  hopper  on  grape,  233 

roller  on  strawberry,  193 

spot  on  brambles,  217 
on  bush  fruits,  203 
on  strawberry,  192 
Lemon,  299 
Lettuce,  21,  22 
Lime,  299 

commercial,  143 

self-boiled,  142 

sulphur,  138 

for  summer  spray,  143 

table  for  dilution  for  dormant 

spray,  139 
Little  peach,  283 
Locating  the  house,  317 
Location  of  garden,  18 
Loganberry,  208,  211 
Long  season  crops,  20 
Longevity  of  seed,  43 


M 

MANURE,  23 

composting  of,  62 
Marketing,  159 

agencies,  169 
Matted  row  system,  186 
Maturity  of  seed,  42 


Melon,  21,  22 
Metamorphoses,  complete,  113 

incomplete,  114 
Mildew  on  bush  fruits,  204 

on  grape,  231,  232 

on  strawberry,  193 
Mould  on  citrus  fruit,  310 
Mound  layering,  84,  85 
Mulched  plants,  spring  treatment 

of,  179 
Mulching  of  apple,  243 

of  strawberry,  187,  188 

the  soil,  178 
Mustard,  22 


N 


NEMATODES,  194 
Nicotine  products,  140 
Nitrification,  74 
Notching,  86 
Nozzles,  135 

Number  of  plants  for  small  garden, 
22 


ONION,  21,  22 

in  sacks,  163 
Orange,  298 
Oxygen  necessary  for  germination, 

40 


PACKAGES,  kinds  of,  161 

quality  of,  165 
Packing  of  apples,  245 

of  grapes,  228 

for  market,  165 

of  strawberry,  190 

supplies,  168 
Packs,  standardized,  166 
Paris  green,  formula  of,  138 
Parsley,  21,  22 
Peach,  275 

cultivation  and  pruning  of,  279 

diseases  of,  282 

harvesting  of,  281 

insects  of,  285 

leaf  curl,  285 

planting  of,  277 


INDEX 


351 


Poach,  propagation  of,  276 

soil,  site  for,  277 

tree  borer,  285 

varieties,  282 

yellows,  282 
Pear  blight,  259,  260 

cultivation  of,  257 

diseases  of,  259 

harvesting  of,  258 

insects  of,  261 

marketing  of,  258 

planting  of,  257 

propagation  of,  256 

pruning  of,  258 

psylla,  261 

scab,  261 

soil  for,  257 

thrips,  262 

varieties,  259 
Peas,  21,  22 
Peg  tooth  harrow,  75 
Peppers,  21,  22 
Pests  of  plants,  112 
Physiological  troubles,  123 

control  of,  123 

Plans  of  gardens,  29,  30,  32,  33,  34, 
35 

for  home  grounds,  327-330 

of  hotbed,  61 

Planning  the  home  garden,  17 
Plant  diseases,  117 

equilibrium  of,  148 

louse  on  bush  fruits,  205 
on  cherry,  274 
on  peach,  287 
Planting  of  brambles,  213 

companion,  24 

depth  of,  48 

rotation,  24 

of  strawberry,  systems  of,  184 

succession,  24 
Plants,  thinning  of,  51 
Plate  bud,  98,  99 
Plowing,  72 
Plum,  287 

cultivation  and  thinning  of,  290 

diseases  of,:  292 

insects  of,  294 

propagation  of,  288 

pruning  and  harvesting  of,  291 

soil  and  planting  of,  289 

varieties  of,  292 
Plunger,  134 
Poisoned  bait,  117 


Poisons  for  biting  insects,  137 

for  plant  diseases,  141 

for  sucking  insects,  139 
Pome  fruits,  237 

Position  of  vegetables  in  garden,  20 
Potatoes,  21,  22 
Powdery  mildew  on  bush  fruits,  204 

on  grape,  231 
Power  sprayer,  133 
Predaceous  animals,  124 

control  measure  for,  124,  127 
Processes  of  germination,  42 
Procumbent  stems,  82 
Produce,  care  of,  160 

grading  of,  161 

preparing  of,  for  market,  163 
Propagation,  79 

of  apples,  237 

of  brambles,  211 

by  bulbs,  80 

of  bush  fruits,  197 

of  cherry,  267 

of  citrus  fruits,  300 

by  conns,  81 

by  cuttings,  88 

of  grapes,  220 

by  layers,  84 

of  peach,  276 

of  plum,  288 

of  quince,  264 

by  rhizomes,  81 

by  runners,  83 

by  stolons,  83 

of  strawberries,  182 

by  tubers,  82 
Protection  of  wounds,  149 
Prune,  time  to,  148 
Pruning  of  apple,  243 

of  bearing  trees,  155 

of  black  raspberry,  210 

of  brambles,  215 

of  bush  fruits,  200 

cause  for,  150 

of  cherry,  271 

effects  of,  151 

of  gooseberry,  201 

of  old  trees,  156 

of  peach,  279,  280 

of  pear,  258 

of  plum,  291 

principles  of,  147 

roots  of  plants,  153 

saws,  knives,  149,  150 

summer,  winter,  153 


352 


INDEX 


Pruning  tools,  149,  150 

top  of  plants,  142 

of  young  trees,  154 
Pyrethrum,  formula  for,  138 


Q 

QUINCE,  cultivation  of,  264 
diseases  of,  265 
insects  of,  265 
propagation  of,  264 
pruning  of,  265 
soil  for,  264 


R 


RADISH,  21,  22 

in  Delaware  basket,  163 
Raspberry,  21,  22 

cultivation  of,  208,  209 
Red  spider,  313 
Regulation  of  water,  39 
Repellents,  116 
Retailer,  the,  170 
Review  questions,  36,  53,  65,  77,  94, 

111,  128,  146,  158,  172,  181,  195, 

206,  219,  235,  266,  297,  316,  331 
Rhizomes,  81 
Rhubarb,  21,  22 
Riding  cultivator,  77 
Ringing,  36 
Root  cutting,  90 

graft,  104 

Rose,  winter  care  of,  176,  177 
Rotation  planting,  24 
Runner,  83 


S 


SADDLE  graft,  104 

San  Jose"  scale  on  apple,  252-254 

on  peach,  187 
Sash,  59 

Scab  on  apple,  248 
on  pear,  261 
on  plum,  294 

Scale  insects  on  apple,  252 
on  citrus  fruits,  312 
on  peach,  287 
Seed-bed,  soil  for,  47 


Seed,  germinative  energy  of,  44 

its  needs,  38 

longevity  of,  43 

maturity  of,  42 

pot,  39 

soundness  of,  43 

sowing  of,  50 

tester,  kinds  of,  45 
dinner  plate,  46 
Geneva,  46 

testing,  44 

treatment,  145 
Seedlings,  transplantings  of,  52 

watering  of,  50 
Self-boiled  lime  sulphur,  142 
Selling  associations,  170 
Semi-hardwood  cuttings,  93 
Serpentine  layering,  87 
Sexual  reproduction,  80 
Shield  bud,  96,  97 
Short  season  crops,  20 
Shot  hole  disease  on  cherry,  274 
Shrubs,  grouping  and  massing  of, 

321 

Single  hedge  row  system,  185 
Size  of  garden,  19 
Slug  on  cherry,  275 
Soap  formula,  140 
Softwood  cutting,  90 

methods  of  handling,  93 
Soil,  compacting  of,  49 

mulching  of,  178 

sanitation  of,  122 

thermometer  for,  64 

water-holding  capacity  of,  influ- 
enced by  cultivation,  70 
So9ty  blotch,  248 
Spinach,  22 

in  Delaware  basket,  163 
Splice  graft,  102 
Spray  gun,  136 

machine  parts,  134-136 

machinery,  129 

materials,  136-146 

nozzles,  135 

rod,  136 
Sprayers,  automatic,  130 

barrel,  131 

kinds  of,  129 

power,  128 

twin  cylinder,  132 
Spraying  outline  for  apple,  256 
for  brambles,  219 
for  cherry,  275 


INDEX 


353 


Spraying  outline  for  currants  and 

gooseberries,  206 
for  grape,  235 
for  peach,  287 
for  pear,  264 
for  plum,  296 
for  quince,  265 
for  strawberries,  195 
Spring  plowing,  72 
tooth  harrow,  74 
Squash,  21,  22 

bug,  113 

Standardized  grades  and  packs,  166 
Stem  cutting,  90 

end  rot  of  citrus  fruits,  310 
Stock,  102 
Stolon,  83 
Stone  fruits,  267 
Storing  hardwood  cuttings,  92 
Strawberry,  21,  22 
bed,  renewal  of,  182 

soil  for,  183 
cultivation  of,  186 
diseases,  leaf  spot,  192 

mildew,  193 
harvesting  of,  188 
insects,  leaf  roller,  193 

weevil,  194 
mulching  of,  187,  188 
packing  of,  190 
planting  of,  184 
propagation  of,  182 
varieties  of,  191 
Suburban  garden,  20,  21 
Succession  planting,  24 
Summer  pruning,  153 

sprays,  formulas  for,  143,  144 
Supply  tank,  135 
Sweet  potato,  22 
System  of  planting  orchard  fruits, 

240 

hexagonal,  241,  242 
quincunx,  241,  242 
square  system,  240,  241 


TEMPERATURE  necessary  for  ger- 
mination, 41 

maximum,  41 

minimum,  41 

optimum,  41 
Tent  caterpillar,  255 


Thinning  of  plants,  51,  52 
Thrip  on  citrus  fruits,  313 
Tile  germinator,  46 
Tillage,  68 
Time  for  layering,  88 

to  plant,  49 
Tip  layering,  86 
Toadstool  rot,  309 
Tobacco,  141 
Tomato,  21,  22 

disease  of,  118 
Tongue  graft,  102,  103 
Tongueing,  86 
Tools,  budding,  97 

pruning,  149,  150 
Top  working,  108 

of  citrus  orchard,  3C1 
Training  of  brambles,  214 

of  grapes,  226 
Transportation,  171 
Tree  protectors,  125-127 
Trellises,  227 
Trench  layering,  86 
Tuber,  82 

cutting,  88,  89 
Twin  cylinder  sprayer,  132 


UNIT  of  measure,  18 


VALVES,  valve  seats,  134 
Varieties  of  apples,  246 

of  brambles,  217 

of  bush  fruits,  202 

of  cherries,  272 

of  grapes,  229 

of  peaches,  282 

of  pears,  259 

of  plums,  292 

of  quinces,  265 

of  strawberries,  191 
Vegetables  grown  for  foliage,  27 
for  fruit,  27 
for  roots,  26 
for  seed,  27 
Vegetative  reproduction,  79 


354 


INDEX 


W 

WALKS,  arrangement  of,  319 

treatment  of,  320 
Water,  bottom,  capillary,  70 

hygroscopic,  71 

regulation  of,  39 
Waxes,  grafting,  110,  111 
Weevil,  194 


Whiteflies,  313 

spraying  for,  314 
Windbreaks,  19 

Winter    care  of    bulbs    and  roots, 
180 

killing,  174 

protection  of  plants,  173 

pruning,  154 
Woody  plants,  winter  care  of,  175 


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MAR  2  6  1956  10 


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